Origin of Name :-
Anne Boleyn's Pearls refer to a signature piece of
jewelry worn by the 16th-century Queen of England as seen in her famous
portrait, consisting of a single strand of pearls with a gold "B"
pendant hanging from the center, and three tear-drop pearls suspended
from under the letter "B." The queen is seen wearing this pearl necklace
in most of her portraits painted during this period. During her short
period of rule that lasted from 1533 to 1536, she presided over a
magnificent court, renowned for its extravagance, with large sums of
money being spent on gowns, jewels, head-dresses, ostrich- feather fans,
riding equipment, furniture and upholstery, to maintain the ostentatious
life-style required by her status. The wearing of pearl-studded gowns
became fashionable during this period and reached a climax during the
period of rule of Anne Boleyn's daughter Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603), who is
reported to have owned over 3,000 pearl embroidered dresses.
Characteristics of
Anne Boleyn's Pearl Necklace
Anne Boleyn's Portrait- Queen of England- 2nd wife of
Henry VIII
The length of the
necklace
The pearl necklace as seen in the photograph
undoubtedly falls under the category of "rope" in the modern
classification of pearl necklaces introduced by Mikimoto.
Mikimoto's
classification of pearl necklaces according to the length of the strand
| S/N |
Length of strand in inches |
Category |
| 1 |
10"-13" |
Collar |
| 2 |
14"-16" |
Choker |
| 3 |
18"-20" |
Princess |
| 4 |
20"-24" |
Matinee |
| 5 |
28"-34" |
Opera |
|
6 |
>37' |
Rope |
This is because part of the long necklace is wound
around the neck like a choker. The combined length of both parts of the
necklace undoubtedly exceeds 37 inches, and hence the necklace can be
considered as a "rope" under this system of classification.
The gold "B" pendant
The gold "B" pendant hangs from the choker-like
portion of the necklace. The letter "B" is believed by many historians
to refer to her surname "Boleyn." Three almost identical tear-drop
pearls are suspended from below the letter "B." It is the gold "B"
pendant that makes this necklace unique, and a signature piece
associated with the unfortunate queen.
The shape, size and
color of the pearls
Most of the individual pearls in the necklace appear
to be spherical or near-spherical, and of uniform size as in
modern graduated pearl necklaces. The pearls appear to be of average
size. Given the uniformity of the shape and size of the pearls in the
necklace, we can assume the color of the pearls must also have been
uniform, and most probably white, the most sought after color in pearls.
It must be remembered however that the appearance of the necklace is an
artist's impression, and how the artist had seen and perceived it at the
time he made the portrait. As such much importance cannot be attached to
what is seen in the portrait, except for making some generalized and
intelligent guesses.
Other pearls in the
portrait
Apart from the pearls in the necklace, there are also
other pearls in Queen Anne Boleyn's portrait. 16 pairs of almost
identical, spherical-shaped pearls are fixed to the queen's gown along
the lower neckline of her dress. What looks like two rows of uniform
pearls on her head-dress perfectly matches with the pearls on the
necklace and the neckline of the gown. It is not known exactly whether
these are natural pearls, glass beads or other artificial beads forming
part of the head-dress. The Armada Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I,
however shows natural drop-shaped pearls in pairs, incorporated into her
elaborate hair-dress.
Are the pearls in
Queen Anne Boleyn's necklace
saltwater or freshwater pearls ?
Britain had an
ancient natural pearl industry based on freshwater pearls dating back to
over 2000 years
The next question that arises is whether the pearls
in the Anne Boleyn's necklace are freshwater or saltwater pearls.
Britain had an ancient natural pearl industry based on the freshwater
mussel Margaritifera margaritifera dating back to over 2,000 years to
the pre-Roman period. One of the main reasons given by Julius Caesar for
invading Britain in 55 BC, was taking control of the trade in Scottish
freshwater pearls, which together with gold underpinned the Roman
monetary system. Scottish pearls were traded in the pearl markets of
Europe in the 12th-century, and the commercial exploitation of
freshwater mussels in Britain and Ireland had developed into a large
scale industry in the 16th-century. The government employed river
bailiffs to supervise the exploitation of freshwater mussels and to make
sure that all valuable pearls reached the king's treasury. Scottish
pearls of exceptional quality entered the crown jewels of both England
and Scotland during this period.
Can the pearls in
the necklace be freshwater Scottish pearls ?
Queen Anne Boleyn's period of rule from 1533 to 1536
corresponds with the height of the Scottish pearl industry in the
16th-century. Can the pearls in Queen Anne Boleyn's necklace be
freshwater pearls of Scottish origin ?
The GIA classifies pearl shapes into three categories
:-1) Spherical 2) Symmetrical and 3) Baroque. Round and near-round
shapes come under spherical category with a uniform or nearly uniform
diameter all round, and several lines of symmetry through which the
pearl can be divided into two equal halves. Symmetrical shapes have a
single median line of symmetry through which the pearl can be divided
into two equal halves and include oval, button and drop shapes. Baroque
category includes irregular shapes such as semi-baroque and baroque,
without a line of symmetry. In natural freshwater pearls the commonest
shape is the baroque or irregular shape. Symmetrical shapes are rare in
freshwater pearls, but the rarest of all shapes in natural freshwater
pearls is the spherical shape, both the round and near round shapes.
Given the fact that almost all the pearls in Queen Anne Boleyn's
necklace are spherical or near-spherical in shape, it is highly unlikely
that the pearls in this necklace are freshwater pearls.
If the pearls are
saltwater pearls what are the possible sources of these pearls ?
If the pearls in the necklace are saltwater pearls,
the possible sources of these pearls can be either the Persian Gulf, the
Red Sea or the Gulf of Mannar, the hub of the international pearl trade
since very ancient times. However, in 1498 soon after the discovery of
pearls in Venezuela, by Christopher Columbus, on his third voyage to the
New World, a new source of pearls became available to the world's pearl
markets in addition to the traditional sources in Asia. Subsequently,
pearl banks were also discovered off the coast of Columbia in the
Caribbean, the Pacific coast of Panama and in the Gulf of California in
Mexico. Large quantities of saltwater pearls exploited by the Spanish
from these new sources, eventually entered the pearl markets of Europe,
via Madrid in Spain, to the extent that emphasis in the international
pearl trade shifted from the traditional pearl-producing countries
of Asia to the New World.
A short biography of
Queen Anne Boleyn
Anne Boleyn, the most
influential and important queen consort England has ever had
Often referred to as "the most influential and
important queen consort England has ever had" Queen Anne Boleyn
was a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the
start of the English reformation. Her marriage to King Henry VIII as his
second wife, after his marriage to the first wife, Catherine of Aragon,
was annulled, amidst strong disapproval by Pope Clement VII, led to the
permanent break between the Church of England and the Catholic Church,
with the former coming under the King's sole control. Ironically, Queen
Anne Boleyn paid the supreme price for getting involved knowingly or
unknowingly with a king, whose sexual drive could not be satisfied by
just one woman, and who was prepared to break with accepted norms and
traditions, to marry or take as his mistress any woman he desired.
Hever Castle, childhood home of Anne Boleyn
Her early life and
education in the royal courts of Netherlands and France
Anne Boleyn who was born between 1501 and 1507 was
the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and his wife Lady Elizabeth Howard.
Sir Thomas Boleyn was a respected diplomat, with a gift for languages,
and served both King Henry VII and King Henry VIII. Thomas Boleyn's fame
and influence as a diplomat helped his young daughter Anne to be
offered a place in the household of Archduchess Margaret of Austria,
daughter of Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor, on whose behalf she
ruled Netherlands. She had early education in Netherlands from 1513 to
1514, while under the care of the Archduchess. Later Thomas Boleyn took
Anne to France, where she first became a maid-of-honor to Queen Mary
wife of King Louis XII, and then to Queen Claude of France, with whom he
stayed for nearly seven years. While serving in the Queen's household
she studied French, and also acquired knowledge on French culture and
etiquette. She also developed an interest in fashion and religious
philosophy. Her upbringing and experience in France made her a devout
Christian in the new tradition of Renaissance humanism. In 1521, Anne
was summoned back to England by her father, and must have been around
15-20 years when she arrived in England.
Her return to
England, where she became one of the most stylish and accomplished women
in the English court
Anne was now a young woman full of energy and
vitality, moderately beautiful. Whatever shortcomings she might have had
in her beauty was more than compensated by her educational and culturing
upbringing in the court of the king of France, that made her one of the
most stylish and accomplished women in the English court. Her carriage
was graceful; her French clothes were pleasing and stylish; she danced
with ease; had a pleasant singing voice; she could play the lute and
several other musical instruments and spoke French very fluently. Her
intelligence and quick wit attracted people to her, and she became the
center of attention in any social gathering. Anne became a
lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine of Aragon. Anne was soon courted by
Sir Henry Percy, the eldest son of the Earl of Northumberland and soon
they became engaged to be married. However, Percy's father objected to
the marriage, and the young couple were separated. Anne was sent away
from court to her family's countryside estate, and Sir Henry was forced
to marry Lady Mary Talbot, daughter of Edward Talbot. Anne returned to
the service of Queen Catherine of Aragon, after Henry's marriage.
Anne's refusal to
become King Henry VIII's mistress and its significance
In 1526, King Henry VIII became enamored with her and
began her pursuit. Anne resisted all attempts by the king to seduce her,
and refused to become his mistress, as her sister Mary Boleyn had done
earlier, and had been later abandoned. She left the court quite often
for the seclusion of the Hever Castle to escape the advances of the
king. Anne was determined not to have any relationship with the king
outside of a legal marriage. This attitude of Anne was a crucial factor
in shaping the religious and political history of Britain and the rest
of the world. Had Anne
consented to become Henry VIII's mistress, the king would not have
divorced Catherine of Aragon, and the breakup with the Catholic Church
would not have materialized, and history would have taken an entirely
different course. It was in this context that Anne became a key figure
in the political and religious upheaval that followed.
Henry VIII, 2nd Tudor King of England
Henry VIII proposes
marriage to Anne Boleyn which she accepted
In the mean time the king was
desperate for a male heir to the throne, that would ensure a smooth
transition of power after him, and his first wife Queen Catherine of
Aragon was not able to give him a male heir despite nearly two decades
of marital relationship. Catherine only bore him a daughter in 1516, who
subsequently became Mary I. Thus, Henry VIII decided that by making Anne
his legal wife and queen consort, would achieve the dual purpose of not
only satisfying his desires, but also increasing the prospect of having
a male heir. Within an year since he began pursuing his desires, he
proposed marriage to Anne and she accepted. However, several hurdles had
to be surmounted before the duo was declared man and wife.
Pope Clement VII (1523 to 1534)
Henry VIII appeals to
Pope Clement to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which is
rejected
The first major hurdle was getting papal approval for
a divorce or annulment of marriage with the queen consort Catherine of
Aragon, something that is forbidden in the Catholic Church. Henry VIII
had a readymade excuse to seek for divorce, as his marriage to Catherine
of Aragon in the first place, following her first husband's death, who
happened to be Henry VIII's own brother, had to be sanctioned by Pope
Julius II, because the Book of Leviticus in the Bible, forbade the
marriage of a man to his brother's widow. This provided the pretext for
Henry VIII, to appeal to the new Pope Clement VII, that the previous
Pope had erred by sanctioning the marriage, and that no Pope had the
right to overrule a Biblical book. He appealed to Pope Clement VII, to
declare that the previous Pope had made a grave error, and that his
marriage to Catherine of Aragon be annulled. By doing so the king
implicitly admitted that he had been living in sin with Catherine of
Aragon all these years, and his daughter Mary was a bastard. The Pope
who was a virtual prisoner of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, who was
the nephew of Catherine of Aragon, was powerless to grant Henry VIII's
request, in spite of Cardinal Wolsely interceding with the Pope on his
behalf. The Pope forbade Henry from contracting a new marriage until a
decision was reached in Rome, and not in England.
Catherine of Aragon- 1st Queen consort of King Henry
VIII
Henry VIII's reaction
to the Pope's rejection - the beginning of the English Reformation
Immediately after the Pope's rejection of Henry's
appeal, the king took a series of measures that set the stage for the
English Reformation, by which the Church of England broke away from the
authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. In 1529, Henry VIII
dismissed Cardinal Wolsely from public office and placed him under
arrest. He died the following year of illness, while still in custody. In 1531, Queen
Catherine of Aragon was banished from court, and her living quarters
given to Anne Boleyn. In 1532, when the Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, the Boleyn family chaplain, Thomas Cranmer was appointed as
successor with papal approval. In 1532, Thomas Cromwell brought before
Parliament several acts, that recognized royal supremacy over the
Church. In the winter of 1532, Anne was able to use her excellent
relationship with the French court of King Francis I, to arrange for a
meeting of King Henry and King Francis at Calais, in which Henry was
able to get the support of the French government for his re-marriage to
Anne, even though the French continued to maintain good relations with
the Pope and respected his authority. Soon after this meeting, Henry and
Anne got married in a secret ceremony. On May 23, 1533, the Archbishop
of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer sat in judgment at a special court to rule
on the validity of the king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. At the
end of the hearings of this court, the Archbishop ruled that the
marriage of Henry and Catherine was null and void. This was followed by
a second ruling five days later on May 28, 1533, that declared the
marriage of Henry and Anne good and valid. The Vatican retaliated by
excommunicating the king and the Archbishop of Canterbury from the
Catholic Church.
The crowning of Anne
as the queen consort of England
Anne Boleyn had unofficially acted as queen consort
of England, since he came into residence at the palace, following
Catherine's banishment from court in 1531. She played her role as queen
consort quite efficiently, acting independently of her future husband,
granting petitions, receiving diplomats, presiding over patronage
appointments and foreign policy. She adopted a foreign policy that moved
England closer to France, and solidifying an alliance between the two
countries. In September 1532, Anne's rank was elevated by the king, who
gave her the title Marquess of Pembroke, the king himself performing the
investiture. Anne's father who was Viscount Rochford, was created Earl
of Wiltshire. On June 1, 1533, after Catherine was formally stripped of
her title as queen, Anne was crowned as Queen Consort of England, at an
elaborate ceremony held at the Westminster Abbey, followed by a
sumptuous banquet. A unique feature of this coronation was the use of
the St. Edward's Crown for the coronation, which had hitherto been used
only for crowning reigning monarchs.
Anne's initial period
of reign as the Queen Consort of England and the birth of her baby
Elizabeth
At the time of her coronation Anne was almost six
months pregnant, and soon after the coronation she left her official
duties and retired to the Greenwich Palace, to prepare for the birth of
her baby. To the disappointment of both Anne and Henry, she gave birth
to a baby girl on September 7, 1533, and the baby was christened
Elizabeth. The baby was eventually sent to Hatfield House in the
countryside, where she was brought up by a staff of servants, visited by
Anne frequently. Queen Anne had a staff of over 250 servants, to attend
to all her personal needs, from priests to stable boys, and consisted of
over 60 maids-of-honor who served her and accompanied her to social
events. The king and queen led a happy married life at the beginning,
with Anne Boleyn presiding over a magnificent court noted for its
extravagance, with large sums of money being spent on royal gowns,
jewels, headdresses, furniture and upholstery, in keeping with her
status as the queen consort of England. Several places were renovated to
suit the extravagant tastes of the King and Queen.
Anne's unpopularity
with the general public
Anne was unpopular with the general public for
several reasons, including the manner in which she stepped into the
shoes of Catherine of Aragon, the popular belief that she was
responsible for her husband's tyranny, and later for her failure to
produce a son. and the execution of her enemies Sir Thomas More and
Bishop John Fisher.
Anne' downfall caused
by her inability to deliver a male heir
After the birth of her first child, Anne was pregnant
again, but unfortunately the second pregnancy ended with a miscarriage
or still birth in December 1534, causing a lot of anxiety and worry for
both Anne and Henry. The first signs of discontent appeared in their
relationship, soon after this incident, but the couple were soon
reconciled, and Anne was pregnant again by October 1535. Catherine of
Aragon died of natural causes on January 8, 1536. Her death was a cause
of joy for the king, as it had opened the way for the king to leave
Anne, without having to return to Catherine. Her death was a cause of
anxiety to Anne, as she became aware that if she failed to give birth to
a son, Henry would be free to leave her and marry a third time without
any taint of illegality. During her third pregnancy, the King fell off
from a horse during a tournament, and was knocked unconscious for nearly
two hours. The shock and anxiety caused by this incident led to the
miscarriage of her third child in late January 1536, believed to be a
male, after three and a half months of pregnancy. This unfortunate
incident appeared to herald the beginning of the end of the second royal
marriage, that was contracted at the expense of so much of religious and
political upheavals.
Queen Anne is accused
of adultery, incest and high treason and sentenced to death
Soon after Anne recovered from her miscarriage, Henry
declared that he had been seduced into the marriage with Anne by
deception or the power of spells. Anne like her predecessor Catherine
was banished from the royal quarters, and Henry's new mistress Jane
Seymour was quickly moved into the royal quarters. On May 2, 1536
Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London. Anne was accused of
the charges of adultery, incest and high treason. She was accused of
committing adultery with four men, a Flemish musician, Mark Smeaton,
Henry Norris, an aristocrat, Sir Francis Weston and William Brereton, a
groom of the King's privy chamber. The second charge against Queen Anne
was committing incest with her own brother, George Boleyn on two
occasions. The third charge of high treason was framed according to the
Treason Act of Edward III, which stated that adultery on the part of a
queen was a form of treason. The five men accused of adultery and incest
with the queen, pleaded not guilty to the charges, except for Mark
Smeaton, who was tortured. During the trial it transpired that none of
the dates of Anne's alleged encounters, coincided with her whereabouts,
and some were alleged to have occurred when she was late in pregnancy.
Thus, in spite of the fact that the evidence against the accused was
overwhelmingly unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned
to death, by the judges who were under orders from the king to do so.
The accused men including George Boleyn were executed on May 17, 1536.
Queen Anne was executed two days later, on Friday, May 19, 1536.
Historical verdict on
Queen Anne's death
It is now believed that Anne Boleyn's downfall and
execution was actually engineered by Thomas Cromwell, who had fallen out
with Anne over the redistribution of Church revenues and over foreign
policy. But, many historians believe the charges of adultery, incest and
high treason was actually an invention of Henry himself, who had no
valid grounds for divorcing Anne Boleyn as he did for Catherine of
Aragon, and believed that the seriousness of the charges would eliminate
her forever, paving the way for his next marriage with Jane Seymour.
Henry VIII's 3rd-wife
Jane Seymour gives him the much-desired male heir
Jane Seymour, who was Henry VIII's third wife,
finally gave him the male heir, he so much desired, and later
succeeded him as Edward VI, but less than two weeks after Edward's
birth, she died of postnatal complications. Had Jane Seymour survived
after the child birth, none could have predicted what lay in store for her in
the future, given the capricious behavior of the king.
Jane Seymour- 3rd Queen consort of Henry VIII
Henry VIII's other
wives
Jane Seymour died in October 1537. After her death
Henry remained unmarried for around two years, but in January 1540,
contracted his 4th marriage. His 4th wife was Anne of Cleves, a German
princess. This marriage however lasted only six months, after which he
sued for divorce, citing her pre-contract of marriage with Francis I,
Duke of Lorraine, as grounds for annulment. Strangely, the king gave her
a generous settlement, that included Hever Castle, the former home of
his previous in-laws the Boleyns. She remained a friend of the royal
family and Henry's children. and was known as the "King's Sister"
Henry contracted a 5th marriage in 1540, and his 5th
wife was Catherine Howard, sometimes known as "the rose without a
thorn." She suffered the same fate as Anne Boleyn, and was beheaded
after charges of adultery in February 1542. Coincidentally, Catherine
Howard was a cousin to Anne Boleyn, and both died by beheading accused
of the same charges.
Catherine Parr, last Queen consort of Henry VIII
Henry VIII, married his 6th and last wife,
Catherine Parr in 1543. She became famous as the most married queen of
England, having married four times, and Henry was her 3rd husband. It
was while Henry VIII was married to Catherine Parr, he died in the
Palace of Whitehall on January 28, 1547.
Edward VI succeeds
Henry VIII as king but dies during his regency. Edward VI is England's
first Protestant ruler.
Henry VIII, who was the second monarch of the Tudor
dynasty, was succeeded by his only surviving
legitimate son Edward, who took the formal title Edward VI, and became
the 3rd monarch of the dynasty. Edward VI was only
nine years old at the time of his succession. A Council of Regency was
formed with the Ist Earl of Hertford, Edward Seymour as the "Lord
Protector of the Realm" until Edward VI reached the age of 18. But,
unfortunately at the age of 15 years the young king contracted
tuberculosis and died on July 6, 1553. During the regency of Edward VI
the Anglican Church was transformed into a Protestant body and Edward VI
became England's first protestant ruler. Even though Henry VIII was
responsible for severing the links between the Church of England and
Rome, he still remained an advocate for traditional Catholic ceremony
and doctrine throughout his life, even after he was ex-communicated from
the Roman Catholic Church.
Edward VI 3rd Tudor King of England
Edward VI is
succeeded by Mary I, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, and Henry VIII's
eldest daughter.
Before Edward VI died he and his regency council drew
up a "Devise for Succession" that excluded his two half-sisters, the
Catholic Mary and Protestant Elizabeth, and instead named his
cousin Lady Jane Grey as his heir. In fact Lady Jane succeeded as queen
of England soon after his death, but remained queen only for nine days,
as the Privy Council set aside Edward VI's will and proclaimed Mary,
daughter of Catherine of Aragon and the eldest daughter of Henry VIII,
as queen, following popular uprising in support of her. Mary, thus
became the 4th monarch of the Tudor dynasty, and assumed the title Mary
I. Mary, who was a devout Roman Catholic was queen of England for a
little over 5 years, from July 19, 1553 to November 17, 1558. However,
during this period she restored England to Roman Catholicism,
suppressing Protestants in the process and burning around 300 religious
dissenters including the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, at
the stake. Hence, Mary earned the sobriquet "Bloody Mary." Mary married
Philip II of Spain, a marriage that was unpopular with her subjects. The
marriage did not produce any issues, and when Mary died at the age of
42, on November 17, 1558, she was succeeded by her half sister,
Elizabeth, the daughter of Queen Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII.
Mary I, 4th Tudor Monarch of England
Mary I is succeeded
by Elizabeth I, daughter of Queen Anne Boleyn, and Henry VIII's second
daughter. Queen Anne Boleyn is elevated to the status of a martyr and
heroine of the English reformation.
Elizabeth I was the fifth, the last and greatest
monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I reversed the re-establishment
of Roman Catholicism in England by her predecessor, and supported the
establishment of an English Protestant Church, of which she became the
Supreme Governor. After Elizabeth I ascended the throne, her mother
Queen Anne Boleyn , who was unjustly executed by her father Henry
VIII, after framing false charges against her, was elevated to the
status of a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation. John Foxe
wrote, that Anne Boleyn had saved England from the evils of Roman
Catholicism and that God had provided proof of her innocence and virtue,
by making sure her daughter Elizabeth I, later became Queen regnant.
Elizabeth I, 5th and last Tudor Monarch of England
Elizabeth was the first Tudor monarch to recognize that a monarch
ruled by popular consent, and she always worked with parliament and with
advisers whom she could trust to tell her the truth. Thus her 44-year
period of rule came to be known as a golden era in English history,
during which English drama led by playwrights such as William
Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe flourished, and England became
famous for its sea-faring prowess led by English adventurers such as
Francis Drake. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, immortalized
her name for one of the greatest victories in English history. Her
preoccupation with governance never gave her the chance to get married
and raise a family, and she remain unmarried for the rest of her life,
and came to be known as the Virgin Queen. Thus all of Henry VIII's
children died without issue, and the Tudor dynasty ended with Elizabeth
I.
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Related :-
Abernethy Pearl
Kellie Pearl
References :
1) Pearl Jewelry Throughout History -
www.hubpages.com
2) Anne Boleyn - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
3) Wives of Henry VIII - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
4) English Reformation - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
5) Edward VI - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
6) Mary I of England - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
7) Elizabeth I of England - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
