Origin of name
The term unguentarium is derived from the Latin word "unguent" which means a
soft greasy or thick substance used as ointment or for lubrication. An
unguentarium is a small vessel or container that holds an unguent.
Unguentaria of different sizes and shapes made of ceramic or glass had been
in use since pre-Christian times, in the regions of the Greek and Roman
empires, as shown by archaeological findings. They were used in funerary
rituals and hence their frequent occurrence in archaeological excavations of
ancient cemeteries. Archaeologists believe that these containers were used
for holding perfumed oils, ointments, balsam. jasmine, kohl, honey, mastic,
incense, scent powders and cosmetic preparations.
The "Emerald Unguentarium" in the Imperial treasury (Schatzkammer)
, in Vienna, was commissioned by the Hapsburg king, Emperor Ferdinand III in
1641, and was carved out of a single large emerald crystal of Colombian
origin, probably over 3,000 carats in weight, perhaps the
largest emerald crystal discovered in the world at that time. The Emerald Unguentarium is shaped more like a bottle, and appears somewhat irregular in
shape, as the cutter of the enormous emerald crystal was perhaps instructed
by the king to reduce losses in cutting, to a minimum. The unguentarium had a
lid and feet also made of emerald, probably worked from the material scooped
out of the vessel.
Photo Above
Creative Commons
Characteristics of the emerald
The exact weight of the original massive crystal is not known but after the
crystal was hollowed out and transformed into an ointment vessel (unguentarium)
it weighed 2,860 carats. The cutter who apparently seemed to have followed
the shape of the natural crystal - which was in fact a twin crystal
intergrown into one another - in order to minimize losses, eventually
ended up with a vessel having a rather irregular shape. The surface of the
vessel is engraved with four leaf patterns. The dome-shaped lid of the
bottle has enameled gold decoration at its base where it fits on to the
mouth of the vessel. The master carver who fashioned the vessel had also
created facets of different shapes on the surface of the vessel as well as
the lid, which were subsequently polished to bring out the intrinsic beauty
of the emerald. The dimensions of the vessel are length-8.5 cm, breadth-7.2
cm, and height-10.9 cm.
Photo Above
Creative Commons
The color of the emerald as appearing on the photograph is a deep vivid green
characteristic of emeralds originating in the Muzo mines of Colombia. The
clarity and transparency of the emerald as seen from some of the upper
facets on the vessel and the lid, seem to be quite exceptional. This is not
surprising if the emerald had actually originated from the Muzo mines of
Colombia. Judging from the color, clarity and transparency of the upper
facets, one can assume that the entire crystal that constitutes the
unguentarium, is indeed a superb gem-quality emerald, whose value by market
prices now commanded by fine emeralds may reach over a 100 million dollars.
In the year 1660, the emerald vessel was estimated to have a value of
300,000 Talers (currency of the Austrian empire).
Characteristics of Muzo Emeralds
1) Muzo emeralds have a deep vivid green (herbal green) color, the most
sought after color in emeralds.
2) Generally Muzo emeralds have good clarity and transparency due to the
scarce presence of gardens and inclusions.
3) Muzo emeralds have characteristic three-phase inclusions containing gas,
fluid and crystals of halite. Other solid inclusions found are crystals of
calcite and parisite.
4) Muzo emeralds have a specific gravity of 2.71, higher than the specific
gravity of Chivor emeralds which is equal to 2.69.
5) The refractive index of Muzo emeralds are also higher than that of Chivor
emeralds. For Muzo emeralds R.I.e = 1.578 and
R.I.o = 1.584. For Chivor emeralds R.I.e = 1.571 and R.I.o = 1.577.
© KHM Vienna
History of the emerald
Discovery of the Chivor (Somondoco) mines -
1537 A.D.
The Spanish Conquistadors who landed in Mexico and Peru in the early 16th
century, were amazed by the large and beautiful emeralds possessed by the
native Indians, who not only used them as ornaments but also as sacred
objects in their temples, and buried them with their dead. Attempts made by
the conquistadors to trace the source of the emeralds proved futile
until the year 1537, when Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada conquered and subdued
the Chibcha Indians of Colombia, whose chief gifted him nine large emeralds,
when he first arrived at the heartland of the Chibcha Indians, the valley of
Guacheta. Gonzalo Jimenez's soldier's succeeded in tracing the source of
these emeralds after almost an year's search of the Chibchaland, high up in
the Andes mountains about 70 km, northeast of Bogota. The area where the
mines were found was known as Somondoco (Chivor), but the Spaniards were not
able to exploit the mines immediately due to the inhospitable terrain and
the inaccessibility of the region. However, exploitation did start in the
mid 1550s and continued for more than 100 years under the most cruel and
inhuman conditions, that King Charles II of Spain was forced to close down
the mines by royal decree in 1675. The mines were then lost and overgrown
with jungle for the next 200 years, until re-discovered only in 1896.
Discovery of the Muzo mines - 1594 A.D.
The Spanish who had captured Chibchaland, had heard about another ancient
emerald mine in Muzoland about 200 km northwest of the Chivor mines, but
attempts to subdue the Muzo Indians failed, as they were a war like tribe
and fiercely and successfully resisted Spanish attacks for almost 20 years,
and were only partially subdued in the year 1555. Attempts made by the
Spanish to locate the ancient Muzo mines proved unsuccessful due to the
policy of non-co-operation adopted by the Muzo Indians. However 40 years
later, in the year 1594, the Spanish on their own were able to locate the
original Indian workings, closer to the present site of the Muzo mines.
Production in the Muzo mines started almost immediately and the output was
prolific during the first few decades, but later declined rapidly due to the
cruel conditions in the mines, long working hours imposed on the workers,
and compulsory labor enforced on the neighboring tribes, forcing the people
to flee the immediate neighborhood of the mines. In the middle of the 17th
century a disastrous fire engulfed the Muzo mines, and mining activity came
to a complete standstill. The mines were abandoned and resuscitated only
after Colombia gained independence from the Spanish in 1819.
The Unguentarium rough emerald crystal enters
the Hapsburg court in the early 17th century
A fifth of the production of emeralds in both the Chivor and Muzo mines went
to the Spanish crown, and the occasional spectacular finds from these mines.
The remaining emeralds were exported to the monarchies of Europe, and Asia.
Substantial quantities of emeralds reached the Ottoman Empire of Turkey, the
Persian Empire and the Mughal Empire of Northern India. Among the European
monarchies that purchased Colombian emeralds from the Spanish was the
Hapsburg rulers of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The Emerald Unguentarium rough
twin crystal entered the court of the Hapsburg rulers of the Austrian empire in
the early 17th century, during the rule of Rudolf II (1576-1612). However, it was only in 1641 that Emperor Ferdinand
III (1637-1657) of Austria, commissioned the famous gem-cutter and carver Dionysio
Miseroni of Prague, Bohemia (presently in the Czech republic) to cut the stone into the celebrated unguentarium.
The source of the Emerald Unguentarium
Given the fact that the Emerald Unguentarium rough crystal entered the
Hapsburg court in the early 17th century, the only two sources in Colombia,
from which the emerald would have possibly originated during this period
were
the Muzo and Chivor mines, which were in active production around this time.
Again, judging by the deep vivid-green color of the emerald, the most
probable source of the emerald would be the Muzo mines of
Colombia, whose emeralds have the characteristic and highly priced
deep vivid-green color. In fact it is on record that the enormous twin
crystal that weighed over 3,000 carats, did in fact originate in the famous
Muzo mines of Colombia, and was purchased by Rudolph II, in the early 17th
century.
Emperor Ferdinand III commissions Dionysio
Miseroni to work on the crystal
The enormous twin crystal that remained in the royal treasury during the
rules of Emperor Rudolph II (1576-1612), Emperor Matthias (1612-1619) and Emperor Ferdinand II (1619-1637)
came to the attention of Emperor Ferdinand III (1637-1657), who upon seeing
the massive emerald in 1941, summoned his trusted employee Dionysio Miseroni,
who was also a well known gemstone cutter and carver, and discussed the
possibility of transforming the crystal into a small vessel. The emperor
also made it clear to Dionysio, that wastage of the material of the gemstone
should be cut down to a minimum. Dionysio, while accepting the suggestion of
the emperor, took it as a challenge and was determined to apply all his
knowledge, skills and experience in turning out a product that would be a
perfect example of aesthetic beauty and artistic excellence.
Dionysio started work on the intergrown twin crystal in 1941, working at his
home "White Rose House" at No. 8, Nerudova Road, which leads from the Mala
Strana to the Hradschin Castle, where he also had his workshop. After almost
an year's work which involved grinding, carving and polishing, the artistic
masterpiece was completed by Dionysio, who presented it to the Emperor, in
1942. The emperor was overjoyed with the results achieved by Dionysio, that
he ordered the payment of 8,000 talers to Dionysio, for his workmanship. The
value of the rough emerald at the time of purchase was said to be around
65,000 talers. However, after its carving and polishing, the value of the
"emerald vessel" was estimated to be around 300,000 talers. Dionysio
Miseroni is remembered today for many outstanding carvings done on a variety
of semi-precious stones such as citrine, chalcedony, smoky quartz, rock
crystal etc. but the
greatest highlight of his works was undoubtedly the carving of the twin
emerald crystal from the Muzo mines of Colombia.
Attempt to sell the Emerald Unguentarium in
1645 ?
The Emerald Unguentarium, which apparently had no practical value, became a
symbol of imperial power and wealth, the normal function performed by crown
jewels of any monarchy, in any part of the world. It is said that Emperor
Ferdinand III, attempted to sell the Emerald vessel to raise money in Genoa,
towards the end of the "Thirty Years War" in 1645. However, the jewelers who
saw the enormous emerald piece, it is said, refused to appraise it, because
they did not normally trade in such large pieces, and moreover finding a
customer for such an enormous piece would in itself become a serious
problem. It was also reported that the Russians offered several chest of
pearls and the Grand Duke of Tuscany, three tons of gold, in exchange for
the enormous emerald.
Dionysio Miseroni - a short biography
Dionysio Miseroni hailed from a renowned family of gemstone and crystal
cutters from Milan. His father Ottavio Miseroni, was summoned to Prague, by
the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II in 1588, who appointed him as royal
gem-cutter, with a workshop at Bubenec Mill, in the royal game park. Ottavio
Miseroni married Laura di Castello, with whom he had nine children. Out of
his male children only Dionysio took a keen interest in the family's
profession of gemstone cutting and carving, and young Dionysio became an
apprentice under his father, learning and mastering all aspects of this
skilled profession at a very young age. Dionysio also assisted his father in
the administration and maintenance of the Imperial Art Collection in the
Hradschin Palace, an additional responsibility Emperor Rudolph II assigned
to Ottavio Miseoroni, besides his work as royal gem cutter.
Karel Skréta's (1610 - 1674) Painting of
Dionysio Miseroni and family
at the National Gallery,Prague.
When Ottavio Miseroni died in 1624 at the age of 57 years, his young son Dionysio,
who was only 17 years old, was appointed the royal gem cutter and
assistant administrator of the Imperial Art Collection, and he continued to
receive his father's salary of 20 talers as a stone cutter. However the
Miseroni workshop was administered by his mother until 1628, when Dinoysio
became a major at the age of 21, and was legally able to sign commercial
contracts. The family then purchased the "White Rose House" at No. 8,
Nerudova Road, where Dinoysio also set up his workshop.
The Holy Roman Emperor during this period was Ferdinand II, who is said to
have started the "Thirty Years War" in 1618, when he as the king of Bohemia
tried to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and was fiercely
resisted by the Protestant nobles of both Bohemia and Austria, who rose up
in rebellion. Ferdinand II won after a five-year struggle, but this provided
the trigger for a series of wars fought all over Europe by different nations
for different reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial and trade
rivalries. But, the main battlefield for most of the conflicts was the towns
and principalities of Germany, which suffered severely. The war finally
ended in 1648, with the signing of the treaty of Westphalia, that completely
changed the map of Europe, and the ancient notion of a Roman Catholic empire
of Europe, headed spiritually by a Pope and temporally by an emperor, was
permanently abandoned.
Emperor Ferdinand III
In preparing his son Ferdinand III as successor to the title of Holy Roman
Emperor, Ferdinand II, appointed him as Archduke of Austria in 1621, and
crowned him king of Hungary in 1625 and of Bohemia in 1627. Ferdinand III
became the commander of the Habsburg armies in 1634, and led some of the
campaigns of the "Thirty Years War." In 1637, after the death of his father,
Ferdinand III succeeded as the Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand III who was
less a religious fanatic than his father, readily agreed to compromise with
Europe's Protestant powers, that led to the signing of the treaty of
Westphalia, which ended 30 years of religious strife in Europe.
Ferdinand III was also a patron of the Arts and Sciences, and an
accomplished musician and composer. His interests led to a close
relationship with the royal gem-cutter Dinoysio Miseroni, and he placed
several orders for semiprecious stone objects, that also included the famous
emerald vessel. Ferdinand III also appointed Dinoysio to supervise the
construction work on the Hradschin Palace, and the artistic decoration of a
new chapel at the palace, for which he made a tabernacle with precious
stones. In 1934, with the death of the Imperial Treasure Warden, Dinoysio
who was serving as his assistant was promoted as the Imperial Treasure
Warden, whose duties also entailed that of the Royal Building and
Fortifications Supervisor. Ferdinand III also appointed him in 1642 as Royal
Valet for which he received an additional salary of 15 talers. In 1643, the
royal court also awarded payment of 1,000 talers to Dinoysio for services
rendered in supervising construction work at the Hradschin Palace, which was
speedily concluded.
Dinoysio married Judith Mayer von Burgried in 1628, from whom he had four
boys. After the death of his first wife in 1646, he married Maria Ludmilla
Major von Gossenau, by whom he had four children, one boy and three
girls. The famous painting by Karel Skreta in 1653, hung in the National
Gallery in Prague, shows Dionysio Miseroni with his family, that includes
his wife Maria and six surviving children.
Renowned masterpieces created by Dinoysio
Miseroni
1) The Maienkrug - a vase to hold spring or
may flowers
©Liechtenstein Museum
This is Dinoysio's first documented work, a large vase with cover, executed in smoky quartz for Count
Karl-Eusebius of Liechtenstein in 1639. The spectacular piece was created
from a single large smoky quartz crystal weighing 18 kg, purchased by Karl
Eusebius in 1638, from Martin Dominic Wagner for 800 talers. Dinoysio
designed the vase in the shape of a hexagon, following the original
hexagonal shape of the rough quartz crystal, in order to maximize the size
of the vase, and minimize wastage of material. The exquisitely crafted vase
with two handles, has a height of 37 cm and a width of 30 cm across the
handles. The vase which bears the emblem of the House of Liechtenstein and
the shield of the Duchy of Troppau, was completed by Dinoysio Miseroni in
one year, and is a prominent exhibit at the Lichtenstein Museum today.
2) Tulip flower vase
The tulip flower vase is another remarkable creation by Dinoysio Miseroni,
executed on a single massive yellow quartz (citrine) crystal in 1647. The
vase is also hexagonal in shape, deliberately created to fit into the
natural hexagonal shape of the crystal, in order to minimize losses, and
create the largest possible vase. The inside of the vase is only partially
hollowed out. The vase is 26 cm in height, and together with the tulips has
a height of 46 cm. The flowers are fashioned out of Bohemian jasper, agate
and rock crystal. The handles of the vase and the flower stalks are made of
enameled silver. The work seems to be Dinoysio's private creation on material
belonging to the family, and Emperor Ferdinand III after much bargaining had
to pay 4,000 talers to acquire it. The Tulip vase is on display today at the
KHM (Kunst Historiches Museum) in Vienna.
3) A stemmed cup in citrine (yellow quartz)
The stemmed cup was executed by Dinoysio on yellow quartz or citrine
prior to 1650. It has a height of 15 cm and a width of 17 cm. The cup itself
has a boat shape. The stemmed cup was among the objects listed as
transferred to the court in Vienna on February 22, 1651. The stemmed cup is
on display today at the KHM (Kunst Historiches Museum - Art History Museum)
in Vienna.
4) The Antonia Minor tea pot in lapis lazuli
The Lapis Lazuli teapot and basin, a work that was completed in 1652, was
praised by Dinoysio himself in a remark he made to the Emperor about the
masterpiece : Ein extraordinari stuck meaning "an extraordinary piece."
The teapot that has a height of 19 cm, a length of 21 cm and depth of 13 cm,
was executed on a large rock of Lapis Lazuli which most probably originated
in Badakshan, in Afghanistan, the only source of Lapis Lazuli in the world
around this time. The material also presented a challenge to Dinoysio, as
this was the first time that he was working with this material, which was
relatively soft compared to the materials he had been working on previously.
(Lapis Lazuli has a hardness of only 5.0 to 5.5 on the Mohs scale).
The work that was completed in 1652, had gilded silver and enamel gold
decoration. The handle of the pot is in the form of a siren (half woman and
half bird-like form). The head of the siren is an antique piece representing
a Roman woman, Antonia Minor, the wife of Drusus the elder, mother of
Germanicus and Emperor Claudiius, and grandmother of Emperor Caligula. It is
believed that the head might have been carved during the lifetime of Antonia
Minor (36 BC - 37 AD). The joint between the old head and the new body on
the handle of the jug, is hidden by the double string of pearls worn by the
siren. The jug is complimented by a 46 cm long oval basin.
5) Pink chalcedony jug
The unfinished pink chalcedony jug was another artistic creation by Dinoysio,
that was acquired by Emperor Ferdinand III in 1652, probably for a sum of
300 talers. The jug has a height of 24 cm and a with of 11 cm, and the
entire jug including its short stem and circular base was carved out of a
single enormous pink chalcedony crystal. The handle of gilded silver or gold
and and the emblem or family crest had not been completed.
6) The Pyramid
The Pyramid, carved out of a rock crystal (quartz) from Switzerland is undoubtedly the
most outstanding and prominent of Dinoysio's artistic creations, which is
made up of five sections and has a total height of 145 cm.(1.45 meters). The
completed pyramid was delivered to Emperor Ferdinand III, personally by
Dinoysio himself, in 1653, for which the emperor paid him 2,600 talers. It
is said that Emperor Ferdinand III was so taken up with this unique artistic
creation, that he went out of his way to show his satisfaction, by giving an
extra bonus of 100 talers each for Dinoysio's assistants and a gold chain
for each of his sons. The Pyramid was valued at 20,000 talers in the year
1677.
The enormous quartz crystal from which the Pyramid was carved out was
discovered in Switzerland in 1651, and was given as a gift to Emperor
Ferdinand III in Vienna, by his unofficial agent or representative in the
Swiss Confederation, Count Sebastian Peregrin Zwyer von Evibach. The lowest
part of the Pyramid is the 42 cm high bottom vase onto which four
approximately 25 cm segments are stacked. A tubular drill was used to hollow
out the interior of the vase, producing a core of material, that was used to
make four cylinders of progressively decreasing diameter, each about 25 cm in
height. The cylinders were then mounted in a telescopic fashion with the
help of gilded silver and enameled gold rings. The initials DM (Dinoysio
Miseroni) and F III CA (Ferdinand III Caesar Augustus) are engraved on the
pyramid, which is on display today at the Kunst Historiches Museum (Art History
Museum) in Vienna.
7) The Phoenix ewer
The Phoenix ewer, which is a large jug with a wide mouth, carved from a
massive rock crystal (quartz) from the Swiss Alps, is perhaps the last piece executed
by Dinoysio Miseroni for Emperor Ferdinand III, just before his death on
April 2, 1657. Ferdinand III who was a patron and connoisseur of the arts,
patronized the work of Dinoysio Miseroni, since his ascension to the throne
of the Holy Roman Emperor in 1637, and all the outstanding creations
attributed to Dinoysio Miseroni was a result of this royal patronage
extended to a creative artist during a period of twenty years. Accordingly
after the death of Ferdinand III in 1657, there was a significant decline in
production at the Miseroni workshop.
The enormous rock crystal discovered in the Swiss Alps was given as a gift
to Emperor Ferdinand III by Count Sebastian Peregrin Zwyer von Evibach.
In the execution of this unique carving Dinoysio seems to have followed a
new style consisting of large flat areas and straight lines. The height of
the jug is 51 cm, width 33 cm and depth 19 cm. The middle part of the jug
has an engraved landscape decoration with pastoral scenes, a deer hunter, a
ploughing farmer, and a sheep shepherd. The bottom part of the jug is
engraved with Tritons and Nereids. The cover of the jug shows a bird, the
phoenix rising from the flames. The base, handle and cover of the jug, has
gilded silver, enameled gold and rubies incorporated. The finished product
turned out to be an exceptionally large and clear crystal vessel.
Dinoysio Miseroni had not been paid for his work at the time of Emperor
Ferdinand III's death in 1657, and had to make a special appeal to his
successor Leopold I, for the settlement of his claim. In his appeal Dinoysio
wrote : "an welichem uber die drey jahre gearbeitet worden, vor welchem
wan man die grosse muhe und arbeith betrachten will, 4,000 taler fur meine
arbeith whole verdient ware." which translates in English as
follows : "....on which more than three years was labored, and if one deigns
to consider the great difficulty and work, then 4,000 taler would be
well merited for my work." Eventually, Dinoysio billed 3,000 taler for his
work, and an additional 483 taler for silver, gold and rubies and
workmanship of the goldsmith. The letters F III are engraved on the jug,
which stands for Ferdinand III.
The Emerald Unguentarium (vessel) on display
at the Schatzkammer (Imperial Treasury) in Vienna.
The 2,680-carat Emerald Unguentarium of Emperor Ferdinand III, is a
prominent display among the Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasures, of the
Austrian Crown Jewels, housed in the Schatzkammer (Imperial Treasury),
located in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna. The collection which is one of the
biggest and most important royal collections in the world, is a record of
more than a thousand years of European History, dating from the 10th to the
19th centuries. The Schatzkammer, which is under the administration of the
Kunst Historisches Museum (KHM), can be classified into two main sections :
1) The Secular or Worldly Treasury (Weltliche Schatzkammer) and 2) The
Spiritual Treasury (Geistliche Schatzkammer).
The Secular Treasury is divided into five main sections :-
1) The insignia of the Austrian hereditary homage.
2) The Empire of Austria.
3) The Habsburg-Lorraine household treasure.
4) The Holy Roman Empire.
5) The Burgundian inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece.
The Spiritual Treasury also known as the Ecclesiastical Treasury is
undivided.
Some of the most outstanding objects are in the section, The Empire of
Austria, and consist of the Imperial Crown, the Imperial Orb and Scepter,
the Mantle of the Austrian Empire, and the Coronation Robes of the Kingdom
of Lombardy-Venetia. Some of the outstanding pieces among the section, The
Holy Roman Empire, are the Imperial Holy Bible, Sword of Charlemagne, the
Imperial Crown (a sacred symbol of sovereignty, once moved on Hitler's
orders), the Imperial Cross, The Holy Lance (reputedly the lance that
pierced Jesus' side) the Imperial Sword, Orb and Scepter, Coronation Mantle
Sword, and Vestments.
The Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure contain a vast collection of items
from the daily life of the Habsburg monarchs. and only a few highlights are
featured regularly in the Museum. Among such items are the Cradle of King of
Rome (gifted to Napoleon Bonaparte and his wife Marie Louis, by the City of
Paris, on the birth of their son Napoleon II, the future Holy Roman
Emperor), precious christening table cloths, robes and candles, Golden
baptismal ewers and basins from Spain, jewelry and precious stones, and the
Emerald Unguentarium commissioned by Emperor Ferdinand III, and created by
Dionysio Miseroni in 1641.
Emerald Vase or Emerald Vessel ?
Most of the websites on famous emeralds refer to a 2,205-carat Emerald Vase,
in the Viennese treasury, in Vienna, Austria. An extensive search of the
world wide web and other sources for such an emerald vase had proved futile.
This apparently is a mistaken reference to the renowned 2,680-carat Emerald
Vessel or Unguentarium, which is preserved in the Imperial Treasury in
Vienna, and was created by the renowned gemstone cutter and carver, Dionysio
Miseroni, from a twin emerald crystal of Colombian origin, working in
Prague, in 1641, on the orders of the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III.
Readers who may have more information on this matter are requested to
comment below.
Related :-
Emerald Man
Moghul
Emerald
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References
1.Website of the Kunst Historisches Museum (KHM), Vienna.
2.Austrian
Crown Jewels - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
3.Schatzkammer
- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
4.Skreta's Family Portrait of
Dionysio Miseroni - Blazicek Oldrich J.
5.Website of the Liechtenstein Museum.
6."Friends of Jade"
Website.
