Origin of Name
The pendant which is of late 16th century origin as
indicated by the date inscribed on its enameled gold cap, belongs to the
period of the first of the great Mughal emperors of the classic period
of the empire, Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, whose reign extended from 1556
to 1605. The classic period of the Mughal empire, during which it
reaches the peak of its power and glory, excelling in the arts,
literature, architecture and building construction, and the Mughal court
attains its greatest pomp and pageantry, begins with the accession of
Akbar the Great in 1556 and ends with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in
1707. It was during this period that the domains of the empire reach
their greatest extent, and their most visible legacies such as the Taj
Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort of Delhi, and numerous other palaces,
mosques, tombs, minars and forts that stand today in Delhi, Agra, Jaipur,
Lahore, Dhaka, and other cities of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
originated.
The use of jewels and jewelry to enhance the brilliance of
the Mughal court and its rulers also reached its zenith, during this
period. Diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies and sapphires were freely
used to embellish the crowns, headdresses, royal robes, thrones,
carpets, and ornaments used by the emperors, empresses and their family
members. The Mughal treasury had chests full of loose diamonds, pearls,
and other precious stones, that were used by the court artisans in
turning out fabulous pieces of jewelry for the court. Jewelry
designing and crafting also attained a high state of refinement during
this period, and thousands of experienced and well-trained craftsmen who
had been practicing their trade for generations, were on the regular pay
roll of the emperors. Emperor Akbar's Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant, is
just one piece of jewelry, originating from this rich tradition, and was
perhaps part of a more elaborate necklace of unknown design, worn by the
emperor, or one of his empresses or a member of the royal family.
Characteristics of
the pendant
The pearl is large and oval-shaped, but slightly
baroque, with a height of 4.0 cm. The diameter of the pearl, and its
weight whether combined with its accessories such as the bell cap, or
alone, are not known. In the photograph, the pearl appears to be white
in color, with the characteristic luster and iridescence of a nacreous
pearl. The surface of the pearl also shows blemishes and other
imperfections. However, overtones if any in the pearl, cannot be judged
from a photograph. The bell cap of the pearl pendant is made of enameled gold,
engraved with a leaf motif. Three of the gold leaves are engraved
and nielloed on the left edge. On one of the gold leaves appear the
numerals 982 in Arabic indicating the date in the Islamic calendar,
perhaps of the year of production of the piece of jewelry. The
inscriptions on the edge of the other two leaves are indecipherable,
perhaps due to wear and tear.
The Emperor Akbar's Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant
© Australian Museum
The year 982 A.H. in the Islamic calendar can be
converted to the Gregorian calendar, using Hodgson's formula, which
gives a mathematical relationship between the two calendars.
G = H - H/33 + 622 where G and H represent
Gregorian and Hijra years respectively.
Substituting for H in the formula, we have :-
G = 982 - 982/33 + 622
G = 982 - 30 + 622
G = 1574
Thus the year 982 A.H. in the Hijra calendar is
equivalent to 1574 A.D. in the Gregorian calendar, which falls within
the period of rule of Emperor Jaluddin Muhammad Akbar from 1556 to 1605.
It is this finding that led to the association of the baroque pearl drop
pendant with Emperor Akbar the Great, and hence came to be known as
Emperor Akbar's Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant.
History of the
baroque pearl drop pendant
The sources of
precious stones that entered the treasury of the Mughal empire
The sources of
diamonds for the Mughal empire
Diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies and sapphires were
the main gemstones used in the jewelry designed for the Mughal court,
and to embellish their thrones. As for diamonds the Mughal court did not
have much problems, as India was the source country for diamonds for the
entire world, from time immemorial until the beginning of the 18th
century, when diamonds were discovered in Brazil. The source of the
diamonds in India, was the basins of the river systems, on
the eastern side of the Deccan plateau in the Central and Southern
provinces of India. The Mahanadi River basin was one of the most ancient
sources of diamonds in India, and it has been identified as the diamond
river mentioned by Ptolemy, the Greek writer and historian in A.D. 60 to
90. The diamond mines on the eastern side of the Deccan plateau are
divided into five main groups :- 1) The Panna Group in Bindelkhand,
between the Khan and Son Rivers 2) The Sambalpur Group on the Mahanadi
River, which includes the ancient Sambalpur mines 3) The Ellore or
Golconda Group on the Kistna River, which includes the famous Kollur or
Golconda mines 4) The Nandial Group between the Penner and Kistna Rivers
which includes the Karnul diamond mines. 5) The Cuddapah Group on the
Penner River, which includes the Chennur diamond mines. The products
from these mines eventually reached the Mughal courts, after being
purchased by the agents of the emperor, even though the last three, the
Ellore (Golconda), Nandial and Cuddapah groups in Southern India were
not under the direct rule of the Mughal empire. The most prolific of
these mines were the Golconda mines at Kollur, but diamonds were
discovered here only in the mid-16th century (around 1560), and
continued for about 200 years until the end of the 18th century.
Throughout the classic period of the Mughal empire from 1556 to 1707,
the Kollur mines of Golconda were in active production, but the mines
came under the direct control of the empire only during the reign of
Aurangzeb in 1687, when he was able to subjugate the Golconda kingdom
and annex it to his empire.
The sources of
emeralds for the Mughal empire
Emeralds that entered the Mughal treasury came from
overseas, as emeralds were not found in India. The only source of
emeralds in the world during the classic period of the Mughal empire,
was Colombia in South America. In Colombia the emeralds could have
originated in either the Somondoco/Chivor or Muzo emerald mines. The
Somondoco/Chivor mines were discovered by the Spanish conquistadors led
by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada in 1537, and exploitation of the mines
began soon afterwards and large quantities of emeralds were exported to
Spain from these mines, through the Caribbean port of Cartagena in
Colombia. The exploitation of the mines continued for more than a hundred years
until 1675, when King Charles II of Spain issued a royal decree closing
down the mines indefinitely, due to the incredibly cruel conditions,
under which the mines were operated. The abandoned Somondoco/Chivor
mines were then over grown with jungle and not rediscovered until over
200 years later in 1896. The Muzo emerald mines were discovered in 1594,
and exploitation began soon afterwards and continued until the mid-18th
century, until a disastrous fire destroyed the entire mines, which were
abandoned until after Colombia regained independence from Spain in 1819.
Thus most of the emeralds that entered the Mughal treasury during the
classic period 1556 to 1707, most probably originated in the Somondoco/Chivor
mines whose active production period extended from 1537 to 1675 and the
Muzo emerald mines, whose active production period was from 1594 to
around 1750. In the latter part of the classic period 1675 to 1707, the
emeralds would have come mainly from the Muzo mines, as this was the
only functional mines during this period. The emeralds from Colombia
first reached Spain after being carried across the Caribbean and the
Atlantic, and after one-fifth of the best emeralds were taken as royalty
by the King, most of the remaining emeralds were exported to Europe and
countries in Middle East and Asia, such as the Ottoman empire based in
Turkey, the Persian empire based in Iran and the Mughal empire based in
India. Emeralds would have reached India, overland after being
downloaded at the Mediterranean Turkish ports, and passing through
Arabia and Persia, or taken by Spanish ships around the cape to the west
coast of India or along with consignment meant for the Spanish colony of
Philippines, that was taken across the Atlantic, and overland from Vera
Cruz in the Gulf of Mexico to Acapulco on the Pacific coast of Mexico,
and then by the Spanish Pacific fleet, across the Pacific to the
Philippines and later to the eastern coast of India.
The sources of
rubies for the Mughal empire
Rubies for the Mughal empire came mainly from Burma
and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and also from Badakshan in Afghanistan. However,
what they got from Badakshan, was mainly Balas rubies, which are also
known as spinels. The Timur ruby which is part of the private collection
of jewels of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II is a Balas ruby, and bears
the inscriptions of four Mughal emperors on its surface - Jahangir Shah
(1612 A.D.), Shah Jahan (1629 A.D.), Aurangzeb ( 1660 A.D.), Faruk Siyar
(1713 A.D.). Ceylon (Sri Lanka) had been one of the most ancient sources
of rubies in the world, dating back to the period of King Solomon in the
10th century B.C. In Burma, which is famous for its Mogok rubies, mining
had been taking place since 1597. Initially, rubies for the Mughal court
came mainly from Ceylon, but later after the working of the Mogok mines
began in 1597, large quantities of these rubies reached the empire,
across the border from Burma. Thus Burma became the main source of
rubies for the empire.
The sources of
sapphires to the Mughal court
Sri Lanka was also the most ancient source of
sapphires in the world, and the Sri Lankan blue sapphire, had been mined
for thousands of years, from time immemorial and still do not seem to
have been exhausted. The next important source of sapphires had been
Burma, where sapphires had been mined along with rubies, since the end
of the 16th century. The next important source of sapphires was Kashmir,
where sapphires were discovered accidentally, after a landslide in 1880,
at an altitude of about 16,000 feet. More new sources of blue sapphires
have been discovered around the world after the accidental Kashmir
discovery. Thus, the most important source of blue sapphires to the
Mughal empire was Ceylon and Burma.
The sources of
pearls to the Mughal court. The possible sources of the Akbar pearl.
The source of pearls for the Mughal empire, was
mainly the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and the Gulf of Mannar, the hub of the
most ancient pearl industry in the world. The Persian Gulf was the
oldest and most prolific pearl banks in the world, and pearls were
exploited in the Gulf from time immemorial, until as recently as the
1920s and 1930s. In the Gulf of Mannar, pearl banks were found on both
the Sri Lankan and Indian sides. On the Sri Lankan side the pearl banks
were found in the Bay of Kondaichchi (Condatchy), on the northwest coast
of Sri Lanka, and on the Indian side the pearl banks were situated
mainly off the coast of Tinnelvelly, in Tuticorin. However, the pearl
banks on the Sri Lankan side were much richer than those on the Indian
side. During the height of the Mughal empire from 1556 to 1707, most of
the pearls produced in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Mannar, reached the capital of the empire at Agra and later Delhi. Apart
from this pearls also reached India, from the newly discovered pearl
banks in the New World in Venezuela, Colombia and Panama, where
exploitation of pearl resources took place, soon after their discovery
in 1498 by Columbus. The Spanish overexploited these resources, and
within about 150 years, most of the New World pearl resources were
exhausted. Thus by about 1650 most of the pearl resources of Venezuela,
Colombia and Panama were exhausted. Given the period, the Emperor Akbar
pearl pendant was designed, year 1574, the Akbar pearl could have
originated either from the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Mannar or the pearl
banks of Venezuela, Colombia or Panama.
The Mughal empire
from 1556 to 1707 was the richest and most prosperous empire in the
world
The Mughal empire at that time was the richest and
most prosperous empire in the world, and all precious stones whether
diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies or sapphires finally reached its
capital from the producing countries. The Mughal emperors paid
attractive and competitive prices for gemstones of good quality
and producers preferred to sell their gemstones to them, instead of
selling it to other royal houses in other parts of the world. Thus the
Spanish, who were not only able seamen and explorers, but also clever
traders, sent their emeralds and pearls all the way from Colombia and
Venezuela to India, where they fetched very high prices.
According to Abul Fazl, Akbar was the first Mughal
emperor, who organized a special treasury to house the enormous
collection of precious stones owned by him. It was reported that at that
time diamonds, emeralds, red and blue yaquts (rubies and sapphires),
were classified into 12 classes and pearls into 16 classes. Akbar's son
and successor Jahangir, was said to be a great lover of gems,
particularly diamonds and jade. By the time the mantle of power shifted
to Shah Jahan, the Mughal treasury was bursting at its seams so to
speak, overflowing with diamonds, emeralds, pearls, rubies, sapphires
and semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, corals, agate, carnelian,
chalcedony, amethyst, garnet and quartz, and precious metals like
gold and silver. It was then that Shah Jahan ordered his court jewelers,
to design and construct the most splendorous throne ever created in the
history of mankind, the "Peacock Throne," covered with gold and
embellished with diamonds, pearls, emeralds, sapphires and rubies. The
great emperor's line of thinking was that jewels stacked away in the
dark vaults of a treasury would not serve any useful purpose, and would
be better utilized to embellish the throne of the Sultan, so that it
would not only elevate the status of the Sultan by increasing his
brilliance, but also give an opportunity to his subjects to appreciate
the beauty of the jewels possessed by him. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who
had the rare privilege of examining Emperor Aurangzeb's jewels on
November 2, 1665, including the famed Peacock Throne, described the
throne in his book, "Travels in India" published in 1676, as follows :-
"The underside of the canopy is covered with diamonds and pearls,
with a fringe of pearl all round, and above the canopy, which is a
quadrangular-shaped dome, there is a peacock with elevated tail made of
blue sapphires and other colored stones. The body of the Peacock is made
of gold inlaid with precious stones, having a large ruby in front of the
breast, where hangs a pear-shaped pearl of 50 carats or thereabouts, and
of a somewhat yellow water. On both sides of the peacock there is a
large bouquet of the same height as the bird, consisting of many kinds
of flowers, made of gold inlaid with precious stones."
Tavernier, had counted 108 rubies, all cabochons
weighing between 100 to 200 carats each, and 110 emeralds, weighing
30-60 carats each on the great throne. Tavernier put the estimated cost
of the famous throne at that time during the end of the 17th century at
Rs. 10 corore (Rs. 100,000,000 - Rs. 100 million - one corore = 10
million).
Emperor Akbar the
Great - A short biography
Akbar's
early life and upbringing in a rural environment in the absence of his
parents who lived in exile in Iran
Akbar was born on October 15, 1542. in Sindh, where
his father Emperor Humayun, the eldest son of Emperor Babur, was taking
refuge with his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum, at the Rajput
fortress of Amarkot. Humayun was forced to seek exile after his decisive
defeat by the Afghan Pashtun leader Sher Shah. Humayun and his empress,
were eventually granted asylum in neighboring Iran (Persia). However,
they did not take Akbar to Persia, instead entrusting the infant to the
care of the Maharajah of the Princely State of Rewa, where Akbar grew up
in the village of Mukundpur. Akbar grew up together with the Maharajah's
son Prince Ram Singh, and the two struck up a friendship, that lasted
throughout their lives. Akbar was also raised for a short time by his
uncle Askari and his wife, in the eastern part of the Persian empire,
which is now in modern Afghanistan. The boy's unsettled early life
deprived him of the early education that was so vital for a future
monarch of an empire. Thus Akbar accumulated the skills of hunting,
running, horse racing, fighting, taming wild animals, and even carpentry
and lace making, during his early childhood, but never learned to
read or write, the only exception in the line of enlightened Mughal
monarchs, who ruled the empire. Ironically, in spite of this drawback,
Akbar eventually matured into the greatest of all Mughal emperors,
self-educated by listening to scholars in their respective fields, such
as the arts, architecture, music, literature and theology, and
broad-minded able to tolerate other people's opinions, and give due
respect to other religious beliefs in the true spirit of his own Islamic
beliefs.
Humayun's
return to Delhi in 1555. Akbar's ascension to the throne in 1556 at the
age of 14 years. Consolidation of the empire under the regency of Bairam
Khan.
Humayun re-captured Delhi in 1555, in the immediate
aftermath of Sher Shah's death, with the help of his host king, Shah
Tahmasp of Persia. However, Humayun did not live long after his
victorious return, and died suddenly on February 14, 1556, when he fell
down in his attempt to rush down the staircase to answer the call for
prayer. Akbar who was now 14 years of age was in the midst of a war in
Punjab against Sikandar Shah, to consolidate Mughal rule in the
province. The death of Humayun was not announced to the world and kept a
secret by his chief minister Bairam Khan, until the smooth succession to
the throne by Akbar had taken place. The 14-year old Akbar was
proclaimed the Shahanshah at Kalanaur, in Punjab, and Bairam Khan was
appointed as regent to the young king. Bairam Khan as regent first
decided that Akbar should move first to eliminate the threat of Sher
Shah's dynasty, and advised that he lead an army against Sikandar Shah
Suri in Punjab. Akbar entrusted Delhi to the regency of Tardi Baig Khan
and marched against Sikandar Shah in Punjab. However, Sikandar Shah on
learning of Akbar's army marching towards Punjab, withdrew from the
territory as Akbar approached. In the absence of the Emperor and his
army in Delhi, Hemu Vikramaditya, who was the chief minister of one of
the Sher Shah Suri's claimants, attacked and captured Agra and Delhi in
October 1556, and declared himself the Emperor of India. Tardi Baig Khan
fled the city. Akbar who heard of Delhi's capitulation, was urged by
Bairam Khan to march on Delhi to reclaim it. Akbar's army met the
numerically superior Hemu Vikramaditya's army at Panipat, 50 miles north
of Delhi, where a major battle took place. During the battle, an arrow
shot towards Hemu, passed through one of his eyes, and he fell
unconscious from his elephant. When their leader fell, Vikramaditya's
forces dispersed out of fear, and his unconscious body was brought to
Akbar, and beheaded.
Defeat of Sher
Shah's dynasty and regaining control of Mughal lands
The decisive victory for Akbar at Delhi, consolidated
his position, and he now moved once again against Sikandar Shah in
Punjab, using over 1,500 elephants he captured from Hemu. Sikandar who
was besieged at Manikot, surrendered to Akbar, who pardoned him
and granted him a large estate, where he lived until he died two years
later. Akbar then took on Sikandar's brother Adil Shah, and defeated and
killed him at a battle in Bengal. The defeat of Sher Shah's dynasty and
regaining control of Mughal lands during the initial years of Akbar's
rule is solely attributed to the military genius of Bairam Khan,
who served both Humayun and Akbar very loyally and laid the foundation
for a strong empire. Akbar acknowledged this contribution by Bairam
Khan, by supporting him, when his enemies drew up a plan to oust him by
implicating him in a plot to oust the emperor. However, Bairam Khan was
subsequently killed by an Afghan assassin, when he was on his way
unarmed to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Emperor Akbar The Great
Akbar
leads his own army in 1561 against Malwa, and begins a campaign of
conquests that lasts a life time, extending his territory covering the
entire Indian sub-continent north of Godaveri River
Bairam Khan's position was filled by Adam Khan,
Akbar's foster brother, who also continued with
campaigns to extend the empire and suppressing insurgencies in different
part of the domain. By 1561, Akbar led his own army to capture Malwa,
and then marched to Sarangpur to punish Adam Khan, for improper conduct.
Later, he captured Chunar, which had always defied Humayun. In the year 1562, Akbar married a Rajput princess,
daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber, which signified the beginning of a
firm alliance between the Mughals and the Rajputs. It was during the
same year he took charge of governing his vast domain, and formulating
his own policies, which was implemented by his governors, who were in
charge of different provinces. He consolidated power by centralizing the
administration. Akbar campaigns of conquest, which he began in 1562 by
capturing Malwa, continued throughout his lifetime, that saw the
conquest of Chittor and Ranthambor in Rajasthan in 1569, Gujarat in 1572, Bengal in 1574, Kabul in 1581, Kashmir in
1586, Kandahar in 1595, Berar in 1596, Ahmednagar in 1600 and Kandesh in 1601. This was in keeping with his policy that "A
monarch should be ever intent on conquest, lest his neighbors rise in
arms against him." In modern warfare this is somewhat equivalent to
launching pre-emptive
strikes on your neighbors, weakening their capacity to launch attacks
against you." At the time of Akbar's death in October 1605, the
Mughal empire covered the entire area north of the Godavari River, with
the exception of Gondwana in central India and Assam in the northeast,
and also included the present day territories of Pakistan, Bangladesh
and Afghanistan.
Akbar's
efficient system of administration, with a strong central government,
provincial governments, district and village councils
Emperor Akbar's period of rule is not only
significant for its great military achievements, but also for its sound
and efficient administrative set up with a strong central government and
several provincial administrations. The central government consisted of
four ministries, each headed by a minister appointed by the emperor.
They are 1) the prime minister, known as the wakil. 2) the finance
minister, known as diwan or wazir. 3) the paymaster general, known as
mir bakhshi. 4) the chief justice and religious authority, known
as sadr al-sudr. The duties of each of the ministers were well defined
and they were directly answerable to the emperor. The appointments,
dismissals and promotions of ministers were the prerogative of the
emperor.
The vast empire was divided into 15 provinces, known
as Subahs. These provinces arranged in alphabetical order were : Agra,
Ahmadnagar, Ahmedabad, Ajmer, Allahabad, Avadh (Ayodya), Bengal, Berar,
Bihar, Delhi, Kabul, Kandesh, Lahore, Malka, Multan. Sindh was part of
Multan and Orissa part of Bengal. The provinces were created mainly for
their historical importance as the seat of administration of former
kingdoms, and were of different extents and income. Each province was
headed by a governor, assisted by four senior officials, the Diwan
(treasurer), the Bakshi (military commander), the Sadr (religious
authority) and the Qadi (judge). At the provincial level there was
separation of powers between the governor and the diwan, a significant
operating principle, that made the Diwan answerable only to the emperor,
ensuring tight financial discipline.
The provinces were again divided into districts,
known as Sarkars. Each Sarkar had a Fowjdar, who was a military officer,
with duties almost equivalent to that of a collector. Other officials in
the Sarkar were the Qadi (judge), the Kotwal, who was in charge of
sanitation (public health official), the police, a Bitikchi (head
clerk), a Khazanedar (treasurer). Every significant town had its own
Kotwal. At the village level, the communities conducted their own
affairs through autonomous units known as Pancayats (village councils).
Akbar The Great
Akbar's
reorganization of the nobility
Previously the Mughal nobility was composed mainly of
Central Asian nobles belonging to the old Turani clan, nurtured on the
Turko-Mongol tradition of sharing power with the royalty. Akbar was
determined to broad base the composition of the nobility to include
diverse ethnic and religious groups. He therefore recruited prominent
Indian Muslims, Persians and the non-Muslim Rajputs to the Mughal
nobility. Among the Indian Muslims the Baraha Sayyids, the Bukhari
Sayyids and the Kambus were offered high military and civil positions.
The Persians of Iranian origin were also given high-ranking
appointments, but the most significant was the recruitment of Hindu
Rajput leaders into the Mughal nobility, a revolutionary move by a
Muslim ruler, a confidence-building measure, that set the stage for a
new era of mutual co-operation between the powerful warrior clan
of India, the Rajputs and the Mughal rulers. The Rajput chiefs, their
sons and close relatives, were granted a high rank, pay and other
special rights and privileges. They were also given an assurance that
they could retain their age-old traditions, rituals and beliefs as Hindu
warriors. The Rajput chiefs' right to their ancestral holdings were
recognized, and they were also entitled to receive new land assignments
(watans) for their services. However, like all other land holders (Zamindars),
they were expected to pay tribute to the emperor. The new spirit of
co-operation between the Rajputs and the Mughal rulers, led to the
Rajputs not only expressing their allegiance to the emperor publicly,
but also offering active military service to the emperor when called
upon to do so, and willingly giving their daughters in marriage either
to the emperor or his sons.
The re-organization of the nobility was not without
its consequences. The old Turani nobility, consisting of the Uzbeks, the
Mirzas, the Qaqshals and the Atgah Khails, demonstrated their
indignation over the change by organizing a revolt from 1564 to 1574,
making use of the Muslim orthodoxy's resentment over Akbar's liberal
views, which ultimately culminated in the rebels proclaiming Akbar's
half-brother, Mirza Hakim as the ruler of Kabul in 1580. Akbar
suppressed the opposition ruthlessly, eliminating Mirza Hakim.
The Hall of Private Audience of
Emperor Akbar the Great at Fatehpur Sikri.
Akbar's
campaign to win the hearts and minds of the Hindu majority of his empire
Akbar, though illiterate was naturally gifted to
learn fast by experience, and master the intricacies of statecraft and
diplomacy, that was needed to hold his vast empire together. He put
together a team of trusted and efficient advisers and administrators
from among Muslims as well as Hindus, whose advice he sought on all
matters affecting the state. Raja Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh were two
prominent Hindus in his inner governing circle, who rose to become the
Finance Minister and a trusted general in Akbar's army respectively.
Todar Mal was responsible for completely overhauling the revenue
generating system of Akbar's empire. Raja man Singh, who was a trusted
general in the army, headed many campaigns on behalf of the emperor.
Having consolidated his position as emperor after
bloody military campaigns, Akbar realized that the continued survival of
the Mughal empire depended entirely on the allegiance and support of his
Hindu subjects, who constituted an overwhelming majority of the
population. He therefore immediately set about implementing
confidence-building measures, to allay the fears of the majority Hindu
population, and bring them into the mainstream of life, so that they
would share the benefits of his economic prosperity. The elevation of
the Rajput chief's to noble status that assured their allegiance
and continued support for his rule, was part of the new
confidence-building measures adopted by the benevolent ruler. He then
abolished the unpopular "Jizyah" tax that was placed on non-Muslims by
his predecessors, that was a root cause of alienating the majority Hindu
population. He also abolished the infamous pilgrimage tax placed on the
Hindus, and banned the forcible conversion of prisoners-of war to Islam.
He also reformed the administration of religious grants, which was
previously available only to Muslims, and made them available to learned
and pious men of all religions. Hindus were given appointments to all
positions in the civil service, and above all he laid the foundation for
a non-sectarian state, where all religions were given equal protection,
and one could practice freely the religion of his or her choice. The
privileged position enjoyed by Islam in the state was gradually
withdrawn.
Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri
Photo above Creative Commons
Akbar's
attempts to find common grounds in all religious beliefs and
persuasions. His policy of Suleh-e-Kul, the universal tolerance of all
religions and communities.
As Akbar matured into an enlightened ruler, his
hunger for knowledge became insatiable. He never considered his
illiteracy as a handicap, but instead used educated and knowledgeable
people around him to further his own education. His interest in
comparative religion was unprecedented in the history of monarchies
around the world, and became a shining example worthy of emulation by
all monarchies around the world, in the dark days of the middle ages,
when religious persecution and intolerance was the order of the day,
particularly in the west, where large scale massacres of Protestants and
Jews were committed in the name of religion. Akbar's courts at Agra and
Fatehpur Sikri became centers of learning and culture, where learned
scholars, poets, musicians and painters, were encouraged to make
presentations before the emperor. His interest in comparative religion
while serving to expand his knowledge on all religious teachings, also
helped him to find common grounds between all religions, that eventually
led him to propound his own concept of a universal religion, that can
unite the entire humankind. Akbar invited learned scholars of all
religions, such as the Muslim ulema, the Hindu pundits, the Portuguese
Jesuit priests from Goa, the Sikh gurus, Parsi and Jain priests, to his
court and encouraged them to present their viewpoints at his court, and
engage in discussion and debate in a spirit of tolerance. He listened
patiently to all arguments presented in his court, and finally declared
his policy of "Suleh-e-Kul" meaning the universal tolerance of all
religions and communities.
Akbar
the architect of modern India
Emperor Akbar was perhaps the greatest ruler the
world has ever seen. Living in the 16th century and holding together his
vast domains, the largest and most populous nation in the world during
that period, with diverse ethnic groups and religions, his thinking was
far ahead of the times. The greatest divisive force in the world at that
time was religion, and countless massacres were committed in many parts
of the world in the name of religion. Religious tolerance, and respect
for other viewpoints besides one's own, was unknown to the world at that
time. The protagonists of different religions, stuck to their long-held
immutable positions, that they represented the only true religion in the
world, and all other religions were false. Thus Akbar the Great, goes
down in history as the first monarch, who preached religious tolerance,
and encouraged the followers of different religions to look for common
grounds that unite them, rather than clinging on to mistaken notions of
infallibility. Akbar gave equal protection to all religions, and ensured
the freedom of religion, to practice freely the religion of one's own
choice. Three hundred years later Akbar's policy of freedom to practice
the religion of one's own choice, was adopted as one of the pillars of
modern democracy.
Emperor Akbar also gave equal respect to people of
all communities, and appointed them to the highest offices on their own
merits, irrespective of their religion, caste, ethnicity and other
differences. Undoubtedly, it was the policy of tolerance adopted by
Emperor Akbar, that ensured the survival of the Mughal empire, well into
the 19th century, and led to large numbers of Hindus rallying round the
last Mughal emperor Bahadur Zafar Shah II at the time of the Great Indian
Mutiny
against British rule in 1857. Thus Emperor Akbar is rightfully
considered as the architect of modern India, who set the guidelines for
a future secular state. The father of modern India, Pundit Jawaharlal
Nehru in his book "The Discovery of India" gives credit to Akbar's
unique abilities, when he said, "Akbar's success is astonishing, for
he created a sense of oneness among the diverse elements of India."
The Tomb of Akbar the Great at Agra
Is Emperor Akbar's
Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant the oldest surviving example of a piece of
Mughal jewelry?
According to Diana Scarisbrick's book "Ancestral
Jewels" published by Andre Deutsch Ltd. in 1989, the earliest surviving
piece of Mughal jewelry in the world today is a rock crystal bracelet
studded with cabochon rubies and sapphires, that was believed to have
been designed in the court workshops of Emperor Akbar, either in Agra or
Delhi. However the exact year of manufacture of the bracelet is not
known. On the other hand the year of manufacture of Emperor Akbar's
baroque pearl drop pendant is clearly engraved on the piece of jewelry
as 982 A.H., which is equivalent to 1574 A.D. by which time Akbar had
consolidated his power as the absolute monarch of the Mughal domains,
having ascended the throne in 1556. Thus the Emperor Akbar's baroque
pearl drop pendant appears to be the oldest surviving example of a piece
of Mughal jewelry today, older than even the rock crystal bracelet.
The Emperor Akbar's
Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant appears at a Christie's auction in the United
Kingdom in 1999
The Emperor Akbar's baroque pearl drop pendant
suddenly resurfaced in London, at a Christie's auction held on October
6, 1999. The auction house did not identify the owner of the historic
pendant, but placed a pre-sale estimate of £65,000
to £95,000 on it. The auction also featured other historic pieces such
as the emerald "bazuband" of Jehangir, and also jewels that adorned the
turbans of the maharajah of Patiala. The "bazuband" adorned with
emeralds and pearls, was estimated to fetch between £600,000 to
£800,000. The identity of the purchaser of the historic baroque pearl
drop pendant was not revealed.
The
Emperor Akbar's Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant is displayed at the National
Islamic Art Museum, Doha, Qatar.
Presently, the Emperor Akbar's baroque pearl drop
pendant is the proud possession of the National Islamic Art Museum,
Doha, Qatar, where it is displayed as part of the valuable collection of
jewels and jewelry, originating from Islamic nations across the world.
The museum, which is a treasure house of Islamic art, was opened to the
public on December 1, 2008. It is not known how and when the Islamic Art
Museum acquired the historic pearl pendant, but it is believed that the
museum in all probability purchased it from the buyer of the pearl at
the Christie's auction in 1999. It is also possible that the pearl
pendant was purchased directly by an agent of the Islamic Art Museum,
who had been sending their representatives to all international art and
jewelry auctions, scouting for historic pieces originating from Islamic
nations.
The Emperor Akbar's
Baroque Pearl Drop Pendant is exhibited around the world, as part of the
traveling exhibition, Pearls : A Natural History
The Emperor Akbar's baroque pearl drop pendant was
given on loan by the National Islamic Art Museum, Doha, Qatar, to the
American Museum of Natural History, New York, to be exhibited around the
world as part of their traveling exhibition, Pearls : A Natural History,
that was organized in collaboration with the Chicago Field Museum. The
pearl pendant was exhibited at all venues where the exhibition was held,
in the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, United Arab Emirates and
France, between the period October 2001 to March 2008. During this
period the National Islamic Art Museum was actually building up its
collection of Islamic art and artifacts, and their new buildings were
still under construction and not yet commissioned. When the new building
was opened on December 1, 2008, the historic pearl pendant had already
been returned to the National Islamic Art Museum, where it was put on
permanent display in its jewelry gallery.
You are welcome to discuss this post/related topics with Dr Shihaan and other experts from around the world in our FORUMS (forums.internetstones.com)
Related :-
1)
The Sultan Necklace
2)
The Koh-i-Noor diamond
References :-
1) Mughal Empire - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
2) Move to stop auction of Mughal pearls, Sept 28,
1999 - www.rediff.com
3) The Mughal Empire, 1526 - 1761, The reign of Akbar
the Great - Encyclopaedia Britannica 2006.
4) Akbar the Great - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
