Origin of Name :-
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, the renowned French traveler
and gem and jewelry merchant of the 17th-century, made six voyages to
the east during his lifetime, mainly to India and Persia, at a time when
these two countries were among the richest nations in the world. Persia
was then ruled by the kings of the Safavid dynasty and India, by the
mighty Mughal emperors. The two nations, apart from having their own rich
natural resources, were also the centers of attraction of natural
resources from other parts of the world. India was then the world's only
diamond producer, originating from the mines situated in the river
valleys of the eastern Deccan region, in central and southern India.
Persia had large deposits of turquoise. The Balast ruby (Spinel)
deposits of Afghanistan was either under the control of Persia or India.
Among the valuable mineral resources that reached India and Persia
during this period, were rubies mined from the Mogok region of Burma;
blue sapphires, rubies, beryls and a variety of other gemstones mined
from the river valleys of the south-central region of Ceylon (Sri
Lanka), known as the Ratnapura district, apart from pearls recovered
from the pearl banks of the Gulf of Mannar, between India and Sri Lanka;
emeralds mined from the mines of Colombia; and pearls recovered from the
pearl banks of Venezuela, Panama and Mexico, all under the control of
the Spanish, that reached India through Spain; and Pearls recovered from
the ancient pearl banks of the Persian Gulf.
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier- Dressed in the robes of honor
presented by Shah Abbas II of Persia.
Tavernier, developed a desire to travel and see the
world from a very young age. His father was a geographer and
cartographer to the king of France, and his desire to see the world, was
kindled by listening to the intellectual discussions his father had with
other intellectuals and like-minded people of the period. He started
traveling when he was barely 15 years old and by the age of 22, he had
seen most of the countries of Europe and was able to speak several
European languages. He started his first voyage to the east in 1631 at
the age of 26 years and completed his sixth voyage in December, 1668,
after 37 years of almost continuous traveling, with brief periods of
rest in-between, during which period he sold the diamonds and other
precious stones he brought from the east to customers in the west, and
purchased other gemstones such as pearls, emeralds etc. and items of
jewelry, from the west to be carried to his royal customers in the
east. It is the combination of travel and business interests, that kept
him moving for 37 years, and sustained him financially throughout the
period of his travels, which few of the travelers of his period were
able to do. Tavernier, made faithful notes of all his travels and
experiences as soon the events unfolded, that subsequently became very
useful in writing his travelogues. His travelogues although not well
presented in an organized manner, like the travelogues written by other
literary luminaries of the period, became more popular among the people
of Europe, than all other travelogues written during this period, and
was translated into several languages, such as English, German, Spanish,
Dutch and Italian. Tavernier's writings created an awareness among the
people of Europe, of the rich cultural traditions and the way of life of
the people of the east.
During his travels, Tavernier had the rare privilege
of examining personally several exceptional specimens of natural pearls.
He drew sketches of some of these pearls, and noted their
characteristics, which he subsequently incorporated in his book, Le
Six Voyages de J. B. Tavernier- The Six Voyages of J. B. Tavernier,
published in 1676. Two of these sketched pearls have already been
treated extensively, in separate dedicated webpages -
Sara/Tavernier/Shaista Khan Pearl and
Shah Safi/Shah Sofy
Pearl. This webpage is dedicated to another sketched pearl,
labeled Figure 2, in Tavernier's book, known as "The Imam of Muscat
Pearl," so named because the exceptionally beautiful pearl was found by
Tavernier, in the possession of the Imam of Muscat, who was kind enough
to display his valuable possession to assembled guests including
Tavernier, at the end of a grand entertainment given in his honor, by
the Khan of Ormus (Hormuz), when Tavernier visited the Island of Ormus, during
his fourth voyage to the East, that lasted from 1651 to 1655. Except for
his first voyage in which the farthest destination he reached was
Isfahan in Persia, in all other five voyages he reached several cities
in India. In all these voyages to India, he took the sea route from
Persia to India, that started at Bandar Abbas, from where he proceeded
to Ormus, an Island just 20 km south of Bandar Abbas, in the straits of
Hormuz, a nerve center of international shipping and trade during this
period. Tavernier boarded a ship at Ormus, that took him to Surat in
India, the only major international port on the west coast of India,
that was the main entry point for foreign passengers and cargo from
abroad.
Characteristics of
the Imam of Muscat Pearl
Characteristics of
"The Imam of Muscat Pearl" derived from Tavernier's description of the
pearl
Tavernier described the "Imam of Muscat's Pearl" in
the following terms :- "Although the pearl weighed only twelve and
one sixteenth carats (forty eight and a quarter grains), and was not
perfectly round, it surpassed in beauty all other pearls in the world at
that time. It was so clear and lustrous as to appear translucent."
The weight of the pearl is given as 12
1/16 carats, which is equivalent to 48 1/4
grains. The dimensions of the pearl are not given, but the weight of the
pearl indicates that it is a medium-sized pearl. The pearl is described
as not perfectly round, which can be interpreted to mean that it was
either a near-spherical or a button-shaped pearl. The color, overtones
if any, orient and surface quality of the pearl are not known, but the
description that it surpassed in beauty all other pearls in the world at
that time, and was clear and lustrous as to appear translucent, seem to
indicate that all these properties are optimum. The use of the phrase
"clear and lustrous as to appear translucent" seem to indicate a white
or colorless pearl, the most sought-after color in pearls, with an
optimum luster and orient caused by reflection and refraction of light
respectively. The surface quality of the pearl must be exceptional and
almost blemish-free in order to characterize it as a pearl surpassing in
beauty all other pearls in the world, at that time.
History of the Imam
of Muscat Pearl
The source of the
pearl - The pearl banks of the Persian Gulf
The fact that the pearl was in the possession of the
Imam of Muscat in the mid-17th century, without any doubt indicates that
the pearl originated in the most ancient pearl fishing grounds in the
world, the Persian Gulf, most probably in the kingdom of Oman itself,
right at its door step, on the pearl banks situated closer to the
country's shoreline in the Persian Gulf or the Straits of Hormuz. Oyster
bearing reefs were well distributed throughout the Gulf, but were
greater in abundance on the Arab side of the Gulf than the Persian side.
The pearl banks extended from Basra in Iraq to Oman on the tip of the
Arabian Peninsula, and extended into the Strait of Hormuz, and up to the
Kish Island on the Persian side of the Gulf. The reefs were found at a
distance of a few hundred meters to around 96.5 kilometers (60 miles)
from the shore. The pearl banks were more concentrated around the
Island of Bahrain, and hence this region sustained a pearl industry since
ancient times, well known by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The Roman
name for Bahrain was Tylos, and Ptolemy, the 2nd-century AD geographer
and astronomer referred to the pearl fisheries at Tylos in his writings,
that existed from time immemorial. Other areas where concentrations of
oyster bearing reefs were found were Basra, Kuwait, El-Qatif, Dalmah
Island off Abu Dhabi, Abu Musa, Oman, the Island of Hormuz, and
the Lavan-Kish Islands on the Persian side of the Gulf. The oysters are
found at depths of 2 to 18 fathoms ( 3.6 to 32.9 meters), but pearl
divers who used the ancient method of holding their breaths, did not
usually descend more than 12 fathoms (21.9 meters).
Maritime tribes of
the Arab side of the Persian Gulf who took part in pearl fishing
operations
The pearl fishing operations were carried out by the
maritime tribes living on the shores closer to the pearl banks.
The maritime tribes of Hasa, Oman were skilled pearl divers that worked
not only off the coast of Oman, but also in other areas. The pearl
divers of Bahrain, El-Katif, and Kuwait were also highly skilled, and
had been engaged in pearl diving operations from time immemorial. Pearl
divers of the Pirate Coast, the coast line from Ras-al-Khaimah up to
Qatar, were also highly skilled, but during the 200 year period from the
17th to the 19th centuries, gave up pearl diving for the more lucrative
acts of piracy, attacking international shipping in the Persian Gulf
belonging to the British, the Dutch and the Portuguese, operating in the
region, on the east-west trade route, originating mainly from India.
The positive side of
British imperialism that stopped international piracy on the pirate
coast of the Persian Gulf and transformed these sheikdoms into a
law-abiding, prosperous and viable nation known as the United Arab
Emirates
After the British naval forces, based in Bombay,
India, intervened in 1819 to protect shipping in
the area, a truce was signed between the British and the Sheikdoms of
the pirate coast, that decreased the number of pirate attacks. However,
acts of piracy continued intermittently until 1835, and eventually a
permanent treaty was signed between all parties, that put a stop to all
acts of piracy. The Sheikdoms of the pirate coast now became known as
the "Trucial States." Under the terms of the treaty, the British
provided security for these states, protecting them from aggression by
land or by sea. All disputes between the states were referred to the
British for settlement. The British did not interfere in the governance
of these states, and eventually helped them to prospect for oil in their
regions, that helped them to stand on their own feet. The British
finally withdrew from the region in 1971, and the Trucial States joined
together to form what is known as the United Arab Emirates today. This
is an example of the positive side of British imperialism, that
transformed a group of failed states, resorting to international piracy
for their survival, into a law abiding, prosperous and viable nation,
taking its rightful place among the committee of nations of the world.
The resumption of
pearl fisheries on the pirate coast after 1820
After British intervention and the signing of the
truce in 1820, the maritime tribes of the pirate coast, who hitherto
depended on piracy for survival were encouraged to go back to their
traditional vocation, pearl fishing, that had sustained their
forefathers for centuries. Thus, their was a revival of the pearl
fishing industry on the pirate coast after 1835, that provided
employment and income to the people of the area and was a good source of
foreign exchange for the sheikdoms. The natural pearl industry of the
Persian Gulf survived into the early 20th century, until the onset of
the 2nd World War, followed by the Great Depression of the late 1920s
and early 1930s, that had a severe impact on the pearl fisheries. The
final death blow came in the 1930s and 1940s, with the popularization of
cultured pearls by Mikimoto, and the imposition of heavy taxes by the
newly independent Indian Government on pearls imported from the Arab
states of the Persian Gulf.
The Imam of Muscat
turns down several attractive offers for his extraordinary pearl
Tavernier saw the Imam of Muscat pearl, when he
attended a party hosted by the Khan of Ormus, in honor of the Imam of
Muscat, Nasir bin Murshid al-Yaribi , who had recently (in 1650) liberated his country by driving out the
Portuguese from their last stronghold in the Gulf, and had now wrested
control of the Island of Ormuz from the Persians. This was during
Tavernier's visit to the island, en route to India, during his fourth
voyage to the East, between 1651 and 1655. In George Frederick Kunz's
book, "The Book of the Pearl" published in 1908, the author says that
Tavernier saw the "Imam of Muscat Pearl" in 1670 at Ormus, in the
possession of the Imam, who had recently recovered the Muscat peninsula
from the Portuguese. This appears to be an obvious error, as by 1670,
Tavernier had already completed all his six voyages, and had settled
down in Aubonne Castle, near Geneva, having purchased the Barony of
Aubonne in April 1670, and was now perusing his travel notes with Samuel
Chappuzeau, before writing his first two travelogues for publication.
The qualification that the Imam had recently recovered the Muscat
peninsula from the Portuguese, suggests that this encounter took place
during Tavernier's fourth voyage between 1651 and 1655, just 1 to 5
years after Muscat was recovered from the Portuguese. The year 1670 was
22 years after the recovery of the Muscat peninsula and cannot be called recent.
Moreover, the Imam of Muscat captured Ormus only during the mid-17th
century, holding it for some time, before it was retaken by the
Persians. The grand entertainment given to the Imam of Muscat by the
Khan of Ormus, was actually given in honor of the Imam, only after Ormus
came under his sovereignty.
The Straits of Hormuz
Soon after the grand
entertainment ended, the Imam of Muscat drew out the exceptionally
beautiful pearl from a small purse suspended about his neck, and
exhibited it to the distinguished guests around him. Tavernier, as a
foreigner and well known jeweler and gem-merchant, was a special guest
at this function, and was given the rare privilege of handling and
examining this beautiful specimen. The Khan of Ormus, the chief host of
the function, offered 2,000 tomans ($34,500) for the pearl, but the Imam
would not part with his treasure. According to Tavernier, the news of
this extraordinary pearl had reached the mighty Mughal Emperor,
Aurangzeb, who conveyed an offer of 40,000 escus ($45,000) for the
pearl, but the Imam still refused to part with it.
Hormuz Island and Bandar Abbas- Satellite Photo taken
by NASA in 2003
Ormus, a rich and
wealthy kingdom from the 10th to 17th centuries, characterized by
the famous Arab saying "If all the world were a golden ring, Ormus would
be the jewel in it."
The location of
Ormus and the history of its rule from the 10th to 17th centuries
Ormus was the name of a kingdom in the Persian Gulf,
that existed between the 10th and 17th centuries, founded and ruled by
Arab princes in the 10th century, but coming under the suzerainty of
Persia in 1262, and becoming a colony of the Portuguese in 1508, and
again recaptured by Persia in 1622. The
kingdom gets its name from the Island of Ormus (Hormuz), where there was
a fortified port city, which served as its capital. The Island of Hormuz,
is situated in the Straits of Hormuz, a narrow waterway that connects
the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, whose width at its narrowest
point is about 56 km. It is located closer to the Iranian coast of the
Gulf, just 16 km from Bandar Abbas.
17th Century Portuguese Map of the bell-shaped island
of Hormuz
Ormus,
a great emporium of international trade from the 13th to 19th centuries
Ormus was one of the important port cities during
this period in the Middle East, as it controlled the marine trade routes
from Europe, through the Persian Gulf, to India and East Africa. It also
controlled the slave market in the 13th-century from Africa and Arabia
to Khorasan in Persia. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Ormus
attained the zenith of its power and glory, becoming a powerful naval
state, with a large and active trading fleet and a powerful navy. The
naval fleet consisted of 500 fighting ships, but were not fitted with
heavy guns like cannons. Ormus, was like a half-way house between the
east and the west, where the treasures of the Orient was gathered in
abundance, making it one of the greatest emporia in the world. The
Island of Hormuz became so renowned for its wealth and commerce, that
the name Ormus became synonymous with wealth and luxury, embodied in the
Arab saying, "If all the world were a golden ring, Ormus would be the
jewel in it." Ormuz also became the main distributing point for the
valuable pearls discovered in the Persian Gulf. Enormous wealth and
luxury, acquired by any nation in human history, necessarily lead to
degradation in moral standards and behavior, and Ormus was no exception.
Drawing of the old town of Hormuz by A W Stiffe, with
the fort on the right and a mosque minaret to the left.
Portuguese control
of Ormus and the Persian Gulf ports, from 1508 to 1648
The Portuguese occupied Ormus and Muscat in 1508,
gradually extending their control over the entire Arabian side of the
Gulf. However, in 1559 the Portuguese were expelled from El-Katiff.
Eventually, they were expelled from Bahrain in 1602, by Shah Abbas I,
with the help of the British. Later they were ousted from the Island of
Hormuz, in 1622, but still managed to hold on to Muscat, from where they
were finally ousted in 1648.
Hormuz Island- Persian Gulf
Portuguese Fort- Hormuz Island
The title of Imam of
Muscat
The title of Imam of Muscat was a unique spiritual
cum temporal institution that was created by the Ibadists the dominant
religious sect in Oman, in the 8th-century AD, in keeping with strict
Islamic traditions followed during the period of the prophet and the
first four rightly-guided Caliphs. The Prophet was not only the
spiritual head of Muslims but also the head of the Islamic state he
founded. All the guidelines of the future Islamic state was laid during
his period of rule from Medina. In temporal matters he also adopted a
form of government by consensus, carrying all shades of opinion
together. He had not laid any provision or rules for his succession, and
left it to his companions to evolve a method of succession based on his
example of consensus. Soon after his death a spiritual cum temporal
successor was elected by consensus known as a Khalifa (Caliph). This was
a form of democracy by consensus, carrying all shades of opinion
together. The first four Caliphs of Islam were elected on this
principle, and were known as the rightly-guided Caliphs. It was only
after the assassination of the fourth Caliph, Ali bin Abu Ta'alib, the
elected Caliphate was transformed into a hereditary Caliphate, that
eventually turned out to become a monarchy on the Christian model, with
succession going from the father to the eldest legitimate son.
The Ibadists of Oman thus adopted the Islamic model
of succession, electing a spiritual cum temporal leader who was known as
the "Imam" to charter the destinies of their nation. The election of the
Imam was by communal consensus and consent, a form of democracy by
consensus, that maintained the unity of the Muslim Umma, as opposed to
the western style democracy that was introduced much later, that
caused a lot of disunity and dissent in the community due to its
reliance on party politics, the majority always having its way, and the
minority sometimes allowed to have its say. This, unique Islamic
institution of "The Imam" was preserved in Oman for 400 years,
from 751 AD until 1154 AD, when Banu Nabhan established a dynasty of
hereditary Sultans who continued in power until 1406. In 1406, an Imam
was again elected who challenged the authority of the hereditary Sultan,
paving the way for conflict between the two institutions. From then
onwards, the Imamate and Sultanate sometimes alternated in the history
of Oman, or existed side by side. The Sultanate drew its support from
Muscat and its environs and the Imamate from the interior regions of
Oman. The conflict between the Sultanate and Imamate continued well into
the 20th-century, until as recently as 1954, when the newly elected Imam
resisted the Sultan's efforts to extend government control into the
interior of Oman. The insurgency that resulted lasted 5 years, and was
defeated in 1959, with British help. The Sultan finally abolished the
Office of the "Imam", and the new Imam was exiled to Saudi Arabia in
1960. The introduction of the hereditary Sultanate not prescribed in
Islam, resulted in its first undesirable effect just 10 years after in
1970, when the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, Sa'id bin Taymur was ousted by
his own son and heir, Sultan Qaboos bin Sa'id Al Sa'id, reminiscent of
Emperor Aurangzeb ousting his father Emperor Shah Jahan and placing him
under house arrest during the Mughal period in India. Sultan Sa'id bin
Taymur later died in exile in London. This type of undesirable
succession, sometimes leading to fratricidal or patricidal
killings, was a common feature of many Muslim empires, such as the
Ottoman empire, the Persian empire and the Mughal empire, and was a
result of the adoption of a system of governance not prescribed in
Islam.
History of Muscat and
Oman
The history of
Muscat from very ancient times until 7th-century AD
The location of Muscat in the Gulf of Oman, closer to
the Straits of Hormuz, the entrance to the Persian Gulf, with easy
access to its ports, both on the Arabian and Persian side of the Gulf,
and also easy access for ships from Egypt and the east coast of Africa,
and from the ports of the western shores of India, had made it one of
the nerve centers of the international shipping and trade since very
ancient times. Archaeological evidence suggests that the history of
Muscat is as old as civilization itself, with evidence of human
settlements dating back to 6,000 B.C. The discovery of ancient
fisherman's burial sites in the area of Ras al-Hamra in Muscat, and
Harappan pottery in the south of Muscat, seem to suggest contacts with
the ancient Indus Valley civilization of 3,000 to 1,500 B.C. By the 1-st
century A.D. Muscat had achieved international prominence as a port and
trading center, as evidenced by the reference made to it by the Greek
geographer and astronomer Ptolemy who called it "Cryptus Portus" - the
Hidden Port, and the Roman author, naturalist and philosopher,
Pliny the Elder who called it Amithoscuta. From the 3rd-century B.C.
until the arrival of Islam in the 7th-century A.D. Muscat and Oman were
invaded and occupied by the forces of the emperors of two of the Persian
dynasties, the Parthians, from 250 B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. and the
Sassanids from 3rd-century to 7th-century A.D. The primary purpose of
their invasion was the control of the Persian Gulf and its important
trade routes.
Photograph of Muscat Harbour, taken in 1903- Fort Al-Jalali
is in the background.
The increase in
importance of Muscat after the advent of Islam until the end of the
Seljuk Turk rule in 1154 AD
Islam reached Oman and Muscat in the 7th-century A.D.
during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. In the centuries that
followed the arrival of Islam, the expansion of the Islamic empire and
the economic prosperity that followed, Muscat's importance as an
international port and trading center increased phenomenally. The
establishment of the first Imamate of Ibadi Muslims in Muscat in 751
A.D. bringing together all the warring tribes was a step in the right
direction, that helped the development of Muscat as an international
port and trading center. However, continued tribal rivalries and
skirmishes, made way for the Abbasids of Baghdad to conquer Oman and
Muscat whose rule continued until the 10th-century, when they were
driven out by the local Yahmad tribe. In the 10th-century, Omani
merchant fleets sailed from Muscat to East Africa and Madagascar looking
for natural animal products like rhinoceros horns, ivory, leopard skins
and tortoise shells, which were subsequently traded with China, where
there was a ready market for these products, in exchange for porcelain,
silk and spices. From 967 A.D. to 1053 A.D. Oman and Muscat again came
under the rule of the Persian Buyyids, from whom the Seljuq Turks took
control until 1154 A.D.
Map of Muscat and Oman
The increase in
wealth and prosperity of the the people of Muscat during the rule of
Banu Nabhan hereditary dynasty that caused the alienation with the
people of the interior of Oman
In 1154 A.D. the Banu Nabhan established a
hereditary dynasty after the defeat of the Seljuk Turks. This powerful
dynasty ruled Oman and Muscat until 1470 A.D. with an interruption of 37
years from 1406 to 1443, when the country was again ruled by an Imamate.
During the period of rule of the Banu Nabhan, the people of Muscat
prospered from Maritime trade and close alliances with the Indian
sub-continent. The wealth and prosperity of the people of Muscat during
this period, caused their alienation with the people of the interior of
Oman, paving the way for conflicts that lasted well into the
20th-century.
The capture of
Muscat by the Portuguese in 1507, that led to a massacre of civilians,
men, women and children
In 1507, the Portuguese led by Alfonso de Albuquerque
captured the port of Muscat in the Gulf of Oman and the strategic port
of Hormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, with the intention of
taking control of all the trade routes passing through the Persian Gulf
and the Arabian Sea. Muscat fell to the Portuguese after a bloody battle
with forces, loyal to the Persian Governor of the City, and the people
who were most affected by this encounter, were the innocent civilians of
the city, men, women and children who were mercilessly massacred by the
barbaric Portuguese. This was a bitter experience for the people of the
area, who after the advent of Islam, had experienced only warfare in
which only the combatants suffered and the life of civilians, whether
men, women or children were spared in keeping with strict rules of
engagement prescribed by the Prophet of Islam. Naturally, it created strong
enmity towards the invaders, and the Portuguese were forced to take
shelter in their well fortified forts as long as they remained in
Muscat. After taking control of Muscat and Hormuz, they extended their
control to other ports such as Bahrain and El-Katif in 1521 AD, mainly
with the intention of taking control of the pearls resources of the
Gulf. However, they were ousted from El-Katif within a short period in
1559 AD, and eventually from Bahrain in 1602, and Hormuz in 1622 by Shah
Abbas I. They were only able to hold on to Muscat for a longer time
because of their well fortified fort.
Despite all odds
the Portuguese held on to their fortress at Muscat for 143 years and
were finally ousted in 1650
During their stay in Muscat the Portuguese
were continuously harassed both by the Persians and the Ottoman Turks.
The Turks twice captured Muscat from the Portuguese in 1552 and again
from 1581 to 1588. In 1546, Muscat was almost razed to the ground by
Turkish bombardment. However, it was left to the Omanis themselves to
organize resistance and oust the Portuguese finally in 1650. The
foundation for this resistance was laid when in 1624, Nasir bin Murshid
al-Yaribi was elected as the Imam of Muscat and Oman. The Imam reorganized his army
and put together a team of disciplined and well-trained soldiers, that
took him over two decades. Then on August 16, 1648, he dispatched his
elite troops against the Portuguese stronghold of Muscat. The troops
attacked the well fortified fort and eventually captured the high towers
and demolished them completely, weakening their grip of the town, which
was captured eventually. The Imam's troops continuously harassed the
Portuguese who were confined to the fortress, and finally on January 23,
1650, the Portuguese unable to face the continuous onslaught of the
Imam's troops surrendered to his forces. In contrast to the barbaric
treatment meted out to the civilians by the Portuguese in 1507 at the
time of capture of Muscat, the Portuguese prisoners-of-war were treated
humanely by their adversaries in keeping with laws on the treatment of
prisoners-of-war prescribed by Islam and its prophet.
Ya'aruba
Imams, the most successful rulers of Oman and Muscat, colonizing foreign
lands, bringing wealth and prosperity and uniting the whole country
Imam Nasir bin Murshid al-Yaribi, the first ruler of
the Ya'aruba dynaty, was now, not only the undisputed leader of Oman and
Muscat, but also the most powerful leader in the Persian Gulf. The Imam
now sent his troops against the Persians in the Island of Hormuz and
captured it towards the end of the year in 1650. The Imam then moved his
forces and his powerful navy against Persian interests in the
Gulf, even occupying the coastal areas of Persia. In the 1690s, Imam
Nasir's son and successor moved his army and navy against Portuguese
colonies of east Africa. He attacked the Portuguese garrison of Mombasa,
and after besieging it for two years captured it in 1698. After the fall
of Mombasa, the Portuguese were easily ejected from Zanzibar, and from
all other coastal regions north of Mozambique. Thus, the Imams of the
Ya'aruba dynasty, transformed Oman and Muscat into an empire in the
Arabian peninsula, colonizing lands in Persia, Africa and also in India.
After, the expulsion of the Portuguese from Oman, no other foreign power
ever occupied Oman, except for a brief period by the Persians. Instead
Oman was transformed from the status of a colonized nation to a
colonizer herself, becoming the dominant maritime power in the area.
Thus, the Ya'aruba Imams were among the most successful rulers of Oman
and Muscat, occupying foreign lands, bringing wealth and prosperity to
the nation, and uniting the whole country. It was during their period of
rule, that most of the architectural monuments, such as imposing
castles, palaces and other buildings, restored recently were
constructed, such as the fort at Nizwa and the palace at Jabrin.
View Larger Map
Ahmad bin Sa'īd
founder of the Al-Sai'd dynasty
In 1719, civil was broke out in Oman after the
dynastic succession of Saif Ibn Sultan II as Imam, which was vehemently
opposed by the Ulama, the religious authorities. Civil war broke out
between two major tribes, the Hinawi and Gafiri, and in the unsettled
conditions that prevailed, Nadir Shah invaded Oman in 1743, occupying
the coastal cities of Muscat and Muttrah, but failed to take Sohar,
which was defended by Ahmad bin Said. After the end of the civil war,
Ahmad bi Said continued to fight the Persians until they were expelled
from the country. In 1744, Ahmad bin Said was elected the Imam of
Muscat. The new Imam worked towards the reconciliation of the rival
factions in the civil war. He also worked hard to rebuild the Omani
navy, and personally led expeditions against the pirates operating from
the pirate coast of the Persian Gulf, and also attacked and expelled the
Persians from Basra. Ahmad bin Sa'īd was the founder of the Al
Sa'īd
dynasty, and after his death in 1783, was succeeded by his son Sa'īd ,
who being unpopular was replaced by his son Hamad. Hamad who died
suddenly in 1792, was succeeded by his uncle, Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmad.
In fact even prior to assuming power, Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmad had
exercised tight control over Oman and trade in the Gulf, that some
European powers dealt with him directly as the effective ruler of the
country. Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmad was succeeded by his son Sayyid Sai'd
bin Sultan, during whose period Oman reached its zenith as a regional
power, exercising its authority over its possessions on both sides of
the Gulf and in East Africa and also Gwadar in India, on the coast of
the Arabian Sea.
Sayyid
Sa'īd
bin Sultan, the greatest ruler of the
Al-Sai'd dynasty
When Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmad died in 1804, he was
succeeded by his two sons, Sa'īd and Salim, but the throne was
usurped by their cousin Badr. Sa'īd reclaimed his throne in 1806,
after assassinating Badr, and became the absolute ruler of his domain,
with Salim taking a back stage until his death in 1821. One of the first
tasks of young Sa'īd was putting his own house in order, by
settling all family and tribal quarrels. Other major issues he had to
contend with during the early years of his rule, was the Anglo-French
rivalry in the Indian Ocean, the rapid expansion of Wahhabism in Arabia
and the problems caused by the pirates of the Pirate coast. Having
consolidated his power as Sultan, Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan made a
pilgrimage to Mecca in 1824, when he was 33 years old.
Sayyid Sa'īd
bin Sultan exerts his authority over the east African colonies
During this period, the east African coast consisted
of many small states, who still owed allegiance to Oman, after expelling
the Portuguese in 1698. The instability that followed Sa'īd's accession
to the throne, who was just 15 years old at that time, was perceived as
weakness by the east African states, who stopped payments of tribute,
and the Mazar'i family at Mombasa had set up a virtually independent
dynasty. In 1822, Sa'īd sent an expedition against the Mazar'i
family that expelled them from the Pemba island. In 1827, Sa'īd
himself traveled to Mombasa, to assert his authority as the Sultan. This
resulted in a dramatic increase in the revenue remitted to Oman. The
power struggle between Sa'īd and Mazar'i for Mombasa, ended
only in 1837, after the killing of 30 Mazari's who were taken captive.
Sayyed Sa'id bin Sultan, Imam and Sultan of Oman,
Muscat and Zanzibar
Sayyid Sa'īd
bin Sultan begins commercial cultivation of cloves in Zanzibar in 1828
that boosted the earnings of his kingdom
Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan first visited Zanzibar in
1828. He was impressed by the fertile land of Zambia, and its climate
and believed that conditions here would be suitable for the growing of
cloves, a spice that was much in demand in Europe, and was used at that
time for the preservation of meat, and was brought by his sailors from
Indonesia previously. He acquired two properties in Zanzibar, which he
used as experimental plots for growing cloves. After the success of his
experimental cultivation, Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan then ordered the
cultivation of cloves all over the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, which
became the largest producer of cloves in the world. The export of cloves
to Europe eventually generated almost one-third of Oman's revenue. Thus, Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan became one of the first colonial rulers, who
opened large plantations of cash crops outside his country, that
generated revenue for his kingdom. The Sultan probably got the idea for
the creation of such plantations, from his British colonial partners,
who had already started their own plantations of cash crops in lands
colonized by them, in Asia, Africa and the new world, such as sugarcane,
cotton, tea, coffee, tobacco, rubber,
coconut, oil palm, pea nuts, pineapple, banana etc. that generated
revenue for the British empire.
Other
commercial ventures that generated income for the Omani empire
Sa'īd also engaged in other commercial ventures that
generated income for his kingdom. He organized caravans that set out
deep into the African continent, to countries like Tanganyika and
Uganda, in search of ivory, slaves and other products. Zanzibar became
the center of the slave trade in east Africa, from where they were taken
to the Arabian peninsula for dispersal. Under a treaty of collaboration
signed with Britain in 1822, Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan was bound not
to sell slaves to the western powers, but only in the Arabian peninsula.
He also used some of the slaves for the development and maintenance of
clove plantations. The revenue generated from taxes
and commercial interests, made Oman and Muscat one of the richest and
most powerful countries in the region.
Sayyid Sa'īd
bin Sultan unofficially shifts his capital to Zanzibar and establishes
diplomatic relations with the United States, Britain and France
During this period Sayyid Sa'īd
bin Sultan divided his time more or less equally between Oman and east
Africa, spending part of his time in Oman and an equivalent period in
Zanzibar, where he also built palaces and set up his court. While at
Zanzibar he established diplomatic relations with the United States in
1837, with Britain in 1841, and France in 1844, and these countries
opened consulates in Zanzibar. The United States, Britain, France and
Germany became the principal buyers of Omani goods. Sa'īd also exported
goods in his own ships to Arabia and India, and occasionally to Europe
and the United States. In the 1840s, Zanzibar had become the most
powerful nation in east Africa, and the commercial capital of the
western Indian Ocean. It was his interest in trade that made Zanzibar
and Oman great nations, and Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan himself was reported
to have said on one occasion, "I am nothing but a merchant."
Sayyid Sa'īd
bin Sultan officially transfers his court to Zanzibar in 1853, but dies
shortly afterwards in 1856
Zanzibar was the unofficial capital of the Omani
empire since early 1940s, but in 1853, Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan
officially transferred his court to Zanzibar, which became the capital
of the Omani empire. His domain in east Africa extended from Mogadishu
in Somalia to southern Tanzania. Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan died in
Zanzibar 1856. His long period of rule on the east African coast helped
spread Islamic and Arabic influence through out the region, and the
development of the local Bantu language known as Swahili, into the lingua franca of the
entire east African region, after the incorporation of Arabic vocabulary.
Britain's support
to the Al-Said Sultans that prevented the revival of the Ibadi Imamate
Sayyid Sa'īd bin Sultan was
succeeded by his two sons, Majid who became the ruler of Oman and
Thuwayn the ruler of Muscat and Oman. Thus the Omani empire was now
split into two different independent states. After the separation the
economic fortunes of Muscat and Oman declined rapidly, and Zanzibar was
forced to compensate Oman annually for the loss of slave-trade income by
paying 40,000 Maria Theresa silver dollars, a payment which was later
taken over by the British when Zanzibar defaulted. The British
continuously propped up Sultans of the Al Bu Said dynasty in Muscat
using their military strength, against periodic revivals of the Ibadi
imamate in the interior of Oman, that led to signing of the treaty of
Al-Seeb in 1921, that recognized the countries interior and coastal
regions as separate entities, and renamed the country Muscat and Oman.
Muscat was ruled by the Sultan and the interior of Oman by the Imam.
Saudi Arabia
occupies the Buraimi Oasis in 1952 but was re-captured by Oman in 1955
with British help
In 1948, the Iraq Petroleum Company began oil
exploration in Oman. While oil explorations continued, Saudi Arabia
invaded northwestern Oman in 1952, and occupied the Buraimi Oasis,
believed to hold vast reserves of oil. This outside intervention, helped
to unite the two entities of Oman, who sunk their differences to
confront the common enemy. Sultan Sa'īd ibn Taymur, supported by
the British Trucial Scouts, pushed the Saudis back in 1955 and retook
the Buraimi Oasis. With the victory over the Saudis, Oman was reunited
and the centuries old Imamate abolished and the Imam exiled to Saudi
Arabia in 1960. Oil was finally discovered in Oman in 1964 and the first
oil revenues began to flow in from 1967.
s
Sultan Qaboos bin Sa'id Al Sa'id of the Sultanate of
Oman
A palace coup that
leads to Sultan Qābūs ibn Sa'īd ascending the throne and
paving the way for the crushing of the Marxist rebellion, and
appointment of a national administration in which all ethnic and tribal
interests were represented
On July 23, 1970, a palace coup saw
the exiling of Sultan Sa'īd ibn Taymur, to London by his own
son and heir to the throne Prince Qābūs ibn Sa'īd, a Sandhurst-trained
military officer, ostensibly for the suppression of the Marxist rebels
in the Dhofar region and to counter the communist threat from Marxist
South Yemen, two crucial issues, which the son felt, the father was not
able to handle. Tim Landon, Prince Qābūs ibn Sa'īd's friend and
colleague at Sandhurst, now became his mentor and closest adviser. One
of the first acts of Sultan Qābūs bin Sa'īd was to change
the name of his country from Muscat and Oman to the Sultanate of Oman.
He then launched a campaign against the Marxist rebels of Dhofar and
crushed the movement in 1975, with the help of British, Iranian and
Jordanian troops. In setting up his national and regional
administrations, Sultan Qābūs took into consideration all
tribal and ethnic interests, and made sure that they were
proportionately represented. A cabinet of 26 ministers were appointed
directly by the Sultan, but the important portfolios of prime minister,
foreign minister, finance minister and minister of defense were held by
the Sultan himself. In 1996, Sultan Qābūs ibn Sa'īd
declared the Sultanate of Oman as a hereditary absolute monarchy, which
was embodied in the country's first written constitution the "Basic
Statutes of the State" which also provided for his succession. The
constitution provided for a bicameral assembly consisting of an elected
83-member lower chamber, Majlis Al-Shura (Consultative Council) and an
appointed 48-member upper chamber, Majlis Al-Dhowla (State Council),
whose members were appointed by the Sultan.
Muttrah Corniche in Muscat Oman at night.
Photo above- Creative commons
A mosque in Ruwi- a suburb of Muscat Oman
Entrance to Sultan Qaboos Palace in Muscat
Photo above- Creative commons
Modernization of
Oman while preserving ancient architectural monuments
At the time Sultan Qābūs seized his
father's throne petroleum revenues had just started flowing in. However,
by the end of the century production approached almost a million barrels
a day. The Sultan used the oil revenues earned for the social,
educational and economic development of his country and to increase the
living standards of his people. He adopted his own model of development
and modernization, contrary to the models adopted by his neighbors such
as the Emirates, Bahrain and Kuwait. Muscat and Oman had several
ancient architectural buildings such as palaces, castles and forts
constructed by the Ya'aruba Imams in the 17th and early 18th centuries.
Sultan Qābūs restored and preserved these ancient buildings,
while modernizing his capital Muscat. Old Muscat and Mutrah was
modernized without bulldozing the old towns out of existence. Modern
housing and office blocks were constructed in the suburbs, such as Qurm
and Ruwi. The new international airport was built at Seeb.
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Related :-
1)
Shah Safi/Shah Sofi Pearl
2)
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References :-
1) The Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf - Chapter
6, The Book of the Pearl - George Frederick Kunz.
2) Famous Pearl Collections - Chapter 16, The Book of
the Pearl - George Frederick Kunz.
3) Travels in India by Jean-Baptiste Tavernier -
Translated from the original French edition of 1676 - Dr. Valentine Ball
4) History of the United Arab Emirates - From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
5) From Pirate Coast to Trucial - John Brinton. Saudi
Aramco World. www.saudiaramcoworld.com
6) Hormuz Island - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
7) Ormus - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
8) Encyclopedia of World Biography on Seyyid Said - www.bookrags.com
9) Said ibn Sultan - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009
student and home edition
10) History of Oman -
www.murgan.com
11) Port Sultan Qaboos - www.worldportsouce.com
12) Muscat Oman - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
13) History of Oman - From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia.
14) The History of Oman - Oman Information Center.
www.omaninfo.com
15) Oman - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009 student and
home edition
