Origin of name
The Mughal emerald is a magnificent historic carved emerald, belonging to
the period of the last of the four great Mughal Emperors of India, Aurangzeb who
reigned between 1658 and 1707. The table-cut emerald, with two
rectangular flat faces, with dimensions of 5.2 cm by 4.0 cm, and a thickness
of 1.2 cm, is a symbol of the greatest cultural, literary and artistic
achievements attained by India, during one of the golden periods in its
history, the Mughal period, which also gave us the architectural marvels
such as the internationally renowned mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, and other
architectural master pieces such as the giant fortress cum palace complex,
the Lal Kila or the Red Fort of Delhi, and the Great Mosque of Delhi
also known as the Jami Masjid. The art of engraving on emeralds and other
precious stones seem to have been perfected to a high degree during this
period. This is not surprising as the Mughal craftsmen had also learnt the
much more difficult task of engraving on diamonds, which in modern days is done either
by using a fullerite pen or by laser technology. The Mughal craftsman had
used a material harder than diamond to achieve this rare feat, but
modern-day researches have not been able to uncover the precise material
used for this purpose. Some examples of diamonds engraved with Arabic
inscriptions are the Shah Diamond, the Akbar-shah/Jehangir Shah diamond, and
the Taj Mahal Diamond.
It must be emphasized that even though the origin of the emerald dates
back to the period of Emperor Aurangzeb as revealed by the date inscribed on
it - 1107 A.H. equivalent to 1695-96 A.D.- the Emperor's name has not been
mentioned anywhere on the inscribed text. Thus, the Mughal Emerald cannot be
directly associated with Emperor Aurangzeb, as we ascribe the Shah Diamond
or the Taj Mahal Diamond to Shah Jahān (1627-1658) and
the Akbar Shah Diamond to Emperor Akbar the Great (1556-1605) or his son
Emperor Jehangir Shah (1605-1627), whose names and dates are clearly
inscribed on the diamonds. Please click here for more details on the
Shah Diamond and the
Akbar Shah/Jehangir Shah
Diamond.
Characteristics of the
gemstone
The Mughal Emerald which undoubtedly is of Colombian origin is a dark green
emerald weighing 217.80 carats. The emerald has been deliberately cut by the
Indian cutters and polishers of the period, as a table-cut, rectangular
shaped gemstone, with two parallel flat rectangular faces, enabling the
master gem carvers to take over and convert it into a masterpiece in gem
carving with intricate floral designs on one side and beautiful Arabic
calligraphy in the Naksh script on the other. The dimensions of the emerald
are 52 x 40 x 12 mm, and the mid-point of each of the four sides of the
rectangle has been drilled for attachments, so that the gemstone could be
mounted and worn as a talisman, with the Arabic inscriptions facing
outwards.
The inscriptions in the Arabic Naksh script is a perfect example of
ancient Arabic calligraphy laid out symmetrically in five rows, with the
upper introductory row being a little wider than the remaining four rows of
equal width. The edges of the rectangle are carved with cross pattern
incisions and herringbone pattern decorations. The inscription represents an
invocation of the Shia sect of Islam invoking the blessings of Almighty God,
the most merciful and the most compassionate, on the Holy Prophet Muhammad
(peace be upon him) and the twelve Imams that followed after him. The Mughal
emerald is the largest of the inscribed emeralds known to exist in different
collections.
Transforming the Hijra year to the Gregorian
calendar
The date of the inscription is given as 1107 A.H., which when transformed to
the Gregorian calendar using Hodgson's formula, works out to 1695-1696 A.D.
The mathematics of this conversion is as follows :-
G = H - H/33 + 622 where G represents the Gregorian year and H the
Hijra year.
Substituting for G and H in the above formula, we have :-
G = 1107 - 1107/33 + 622
G = 1107 - 33.5 +622
G = 1695.5 A.D. which is taken as 1695-96 A.D.
1695-96 A.D. corresponds to the period of rule of Emperor Aurangzeb who
assumed power after his father Shah Jahān was
placed under house arrest, and reigned from 1658 to 1707.
© Christie's
© Christie's
A detail analysis of the Arabic inscription
The translation of the Arabic invocation into English reads as follows :-
Line 1 - Yah Rahman - Oh merciful one ! Yah Raheem - Oh
compassionate one !
Yah Allah - Oh God !
Allah-humma salli ala Muhammad wa Ali - God bless Muhammad and Ali
Line 2 - Wa Fathima wa al-Hassan wa Hussain wa Ali - and Fatimah
and al-Hassan and al-Hussain and Ali
Line 3 - Wa Muhammad wa Ja'far wa Musa - and Muhammad and
Ja'far
and Musa
Line 4 - 11.V - 1107, Wa Ali wa Muhammad wa Ali
- and Ali and Muhammad and Ali
Line 5 - Wal Hussain wal Mahdi al ka'hirah - and al-Hussain and the steadfast
Mahdi
The 12 Imams (Leaders of the faith) of Shia Islam after the death of Prophet
Muhammad are :-
1) Imam Ali Ibn Abu Ta'lib (4th Caliph of Islam) 2) Imam Hassan (son of Ali)
3) Imam Hussein (son of Ali) 4) Imam Ali Zain-al-abdeen 5) Imam
Muhammad al-Baqir 6) Imam Ja'far as-Sādiq
7) Imam Mūsa al-Kazim 8) Imam Ali al-Ridā 9) Imam
Muhammad al-Jawād 10) Imam Ali al-Hādi 11) Imam Hassan al-Askari 12)
Muhammad al-Mahdi al-Hujjah.
The names given in bold characters are the names of the
12 Imams appearing on the invocation carved on the emerald. A comparison of
the names appearing on the invocation with the names on the list of 12
Imams, show that the names of the Imams in the invocation appear in the
chronological order in which they succeeded one another. Please note that
the invocation bears only the first name of each Imam, except for the 12th
Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi al-Hujjah, whose name appears as Mahdi, which in
Arabic means the "divinely guided one." Muhammad al-Mahdi al-Hujjah is also
known as Muhammad al-Muntazar, the hidden Imam, as the Shia Muslims believe,
that in the year 878 A.D. the Imam disappeared without any trace. His
material body is believed to have transformed into the spiritual world and
shall remain hidden until a few years before the day of judgment, when
he will re-appear as a messianic deliverer known as the Mahdi, who will fill
the earth with justice and equity, restore true religion, and usher in a
short golden age lasting about seven years before the end of the world.
© Christie's
Description of the floral
pattern on the reverse side of the emerald-tablet
The reverse side of the emerald-tablet is carved with floral and foliate
decorations, typical of the naturalistic decoration of the period,
reflecting the Mughal love of nature. The decoration consists of a central
rosette, with a single large poppy flower with basal foliage leaves on
either side, situated above and below, with a line of three smaller poppy
flowers with basal foliage leaves, on either side. The edges of the
rectangular faces are carved right round with cross pattern incisions.
Emeralds - their chemical composition and
structure
Emeralds belong to the group of minerals called beryl, which belong to a
broader class of minerals called silicates, the most abundant class of
minerals found on the surface of the earth. Beryl belong to a sub-class of
silicates known as Cyclosilicates, in which six tetrahedral silicate ions
(SiO4))‾
are linked together to form a hexagonal shaped ring, whose
symmetry is reflected in the final crystal form, which are hexagonal shaped
crystals. As the six (SiO4)‾
ions link together one oxygen atom is eliminated
resulting in the structure [(SiO3)6]‾.
The negative charges on the rings are balanced by the
positive charges on the metal ions of aluminum (Al3+) and beryllium (Be3+),
which hold the rings together in the crystal structure. The overall chemical
formula of beryl is Be3Al2(SiO3)6,
which is known as Beryllium Aluminum Silicate. Two
other minerals that have a similar structure to beryl, but different
chemical composition are tourmaline and cordierite.
What causes the green color of
emerald ?
Pure beryl is colorless and known as Goshenite. The
presence of trace quantities of the atoms of a transition element in the
crystal structure can induce different colors to beryl, producing its
different varieties, such as emeralds (chromium/vanadium-green), aquamarine
(iron-light blue), morganite (manganese-pink), heliodor
(iron/uranium-greenish-yellow/ golden)) and green beryl
(vanadium-pale-green), bixbite (manganese-red), golden-beryl
(uranium-golden/yellow). In emeralds the brilliant "emerald-green" color is
produced by traces of chromium and/or vanadium atoms associated with the
crystal. Some believe that the deep-green color of emerald is actually
caused by chromium. The pale-green colors caused by vanadium, is simply
known as green beryl.
The deep-green color is the best known variety of
emerald, but emeralds also have various other shades of green. The world
renowned emerald mines of Colombia produces different tones of green, which
are almost characteristic of the mine in which they are found. The emeralds
produced in the Muzo emerald mines are a deep herbal-green color, and those
produced in the Coscuez and Penas Bancas mines are a typical yellowish-green
color. Emeralds of the Chivor mines are bluish-green in color, and those of
the Gachala mines are pale-green in color. The color of an emerald is of
paramount importance in deciding its value. Generally, the deeper and more
vivid the green color the more valuable is the emerald, but stones that are
too light or too dark in color are generally less valuable. The top colors
in emeralds are the deep vivid-green, the slightly bluish-green and the
slightly yellowish-green colors. All these favorable colors are produced in
the emerald mines of Colombia and hence the premier source of top-quality
emeralds in the world is Colombia.
Presence of inclusions -
jardin - is a characteristic feature of emeralds
The presence of flaws and inclusions is a hallmark of most natural emeralds,
and unfortunately the best colored stones are sometimes the most included.
The types of flaws found are cracks and fissures and the inclusions can be
solid, liquid and gaseous. The Colombian emeralds originating from the Muzo
and Chivor mines have the typical three-phase inclusions containing
gas, fluid and crystals of halite. Muzo emeralds also contain calcite and
yellow-brown needles of the mineral parisite. In the Chivor emeralds the
characteristic inclusions are pyrite and albite. The Zimbabwean emeralds
have inclusions of acicular tremolite. The Zambian emeralds have tourmaline
and biotite inclusions.
The presence of flaws and inclusions in emeralds is probably a symbol of its
turbulent genesis. The flaws seem to have been produced due to the tension
involved in creating the necessary geological conditions conducive to their
formation. Gem beryl is almost found exclusively in hydrothermal veins,
pegmatites, and at the contact zones of large igneous intrusions that invade
aluminous schist, shale or impure limestone. Beryllium is provided by the
volatile fraction of the vein liquid or magma, and aluminum is provided by
the host rock. The turbulent genesis of the emerald impedes the undisturbed
formation of large flawless crystals. Thus it is extremely rare to have a
large emerald with good color, clarity and transparency. If it occurs, it is
an exception rather than the general rule. Gemologists refer to the
inclusions, cracks and fissures commonly found in emeralds as "Jardin" which
in the French language means "Garden." In other words the inclusions are
compared metaphorically to tender little green plants in the pure green
emerald garden. Emeralds had been held in high esteem and regard and highly
valued since ancient times, in spite of their inclusions. In fact the
presence of inclusions in natural emeralds confirms the authenticity of the
gemstone. Synthetic emeralds too have inclusions but they are fewer and
entirely different in nature.
In spite of their inclusions emeralds rank among the five elite gemstones in
the world, which are diamond, ruby, emerald, sapphire and pearls. Due to
their extreme rarity the price of a top-quality emerald may sometimes be
higher than that of a diamond of the same weight.
Why the emerald-cut was developed for
emeralds ?
The presence of inclusions in emeralds have imparted some disadvantages to
the gemstone. The hardness of emeralds is 7.5 to 8.0 on the Mohs scale,
which is quite high, but in spite of its hardness, the toughness of emerald
is low. This is because the presence of inclusions have made emeralds
somewhat brittle. Again for the same reason cutting of emeralds is a very
difficult task even for the most skilled gem-cutter, and presents a special
challenge, not only because of the high value of the raw crystals, but also
because of the frequent flaws and inclusions. The emerald-cut which is a
rectangular or square shaped step-cut with beveled corners was specially developed by
gem cutters not only to bring out the intrinsic beauty of the gemstone, but
also to protect it from mechanical strain. While emeralds are also cut in
other classical shapes, if the stone is heavily included, it is usually cut
as a rounded cabochon.
Oil treatment of emeralds an accepted trade
practice
Natural emeralds are treated with oils, a form of treatment generally
accepted in the trade. Oil treatment fills the cracks and cavities in the
stone. If the oil used has a refractive index very close to that of the
emerald the cracks and fissures become invisible. Some of the traditional
oils that had been used for this purpose are Canada balsam and cedar wood oil, but
several other crack filling substances have been developed for this purpose.
It is because of this treatment that an ultrasonic bath cannot be used for
cleaning emeralds, and it is advised that one should remove his or her
emerald rings before handling soaps and detergents. In any case oil
treatment is not permanent, and can decrepitate with time or form "sweats"
in strong sunlight.
Some physical and optical properties of
emeralds
Emeralds crystallize in the hexagonal crystal system, giving rise to well
formed hexagonal prisms. The hardness of emerald is 7.5 to 8.0 on the Mohs
scale. This hardness is sufficient not to cause scratches on emeralds set in
jewelry, but the toughness of the gemstone is quite low, because of the
presence of inclusions. The specific gravity of emerald is quite low and
varies between 2.67 to 2.78. The refractive index is also quite low, varying
between 1.565 and 1.599. The refractive index seem to vary with the place of
origin of the emerald.
The birefringence is low varying between 0.005 and 0.009, and so is the
dispersion equal to 0.014. The low dispersion and refractive index reduces
the fire and brilliance of the stone, but this is somewhat compensated by
the vitreous luster of the stone, its deep-green color, transparency and the
emerald-cut of the stone which seems to increase its dispersion. Some
emeralds are opaque and may not be of gem-quality. The Mughal Emerald, which
is the subject of this web page is actually an opaque emerald, which is more
suitable for carving than to be used as a gemstone. Dichroism in emeralds is
quite distinct, changing from blue-green to yellow-green. Natural emeralds
do not fluoresce in ultra-violet light, but synthetic emeralds may show a
dull-red fluorescence. The low specific gravity, and refractive index
combined with the distinct dichroism and the lack of fluorescence in u-v
light are the distinguishing properties of natural emeralds. Synthetic
emeralds also have a slightly lower refractive index and specific gravity
than the natural emeralds.
History of the Mogul Emerald
The source of the emerald
The inscription on the Moghul Emerald is dated as 1695-96, which corresponds
to the period of rule of the great Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707). In
fact this emerald is the only known carved and dated emerald of the classic
Mughal period, and has become a sort of standard for dating all other Indian
carved emeralds. The only known source of fine large emeralds during this
period was Colombia, as all other ancient sources of the gemstone, such as
Egypt, Austria and Swat in Pakistan had been exhausted. Emeralds were
discovered in Colombia by the Spanish Conquistadors in 1537, although they
had known about their existence in neighboring Peru and Mexico prior
to this, even though they were not successful in tracing their actual
natural source. In Peru and Mexico the Spaniards obtained the beautiful
green stones only from the treasures stored up in the graves and temples of
the ancient Peruvians and Mexicans. Mining for emeralds in Colombia began
around the mid-sixteenth century after the forceful subjugation of the local
Indian tribes such as Mayans, Aztecs, Totecs, Incas, and the Chibchas.
The ultimate destination of the Colombian
emeralds in the 16th - 18th centuries
The emeralds mined in Colombia eventually reached the markets in Europe, but
subsequently the brilliant green stones eventually ended up in one of the
three great Islamic empires of the period, in the Middle East and Asia, the
Ottoman Turkish Empire (1299-1923), the Safavid Persian Empire (1501-1722)
and the Mughal Empire of India (classic period-1556 to 1707), where there
was a great demand for the green stones especially among the ruling classes.
The enormous Mogul emerald might also have reached the Mogul Empire from
Colombia, via Spain together with other emeralds, as goods of trade, as the
Spanish had found that the Mogul Empire was a very lucrative market for
their valuable merchandise, given the enormous riches concentrated in the
hands of the Mogul Emperors.
The original owners of the Mogul Emerald
The Mogul Emerald having reached India, in the late 17th century, was
entrusted to the skilled Indian gem cutters, polishers and carvers of the
period by the owner of the gemstone, who incidentally happened to be a
Shi'ite Muslim, going by the Shi'ite prayers invoking the blessings of God
Almighty, on the Holy Prophet Muhammad and the twelve Shi'ite Imams. This
invocation clearly excludes the Mogul Emperors and particularly Emperor
Aurangzeb from being the initiator and sponsor of this historic
gem-carving, because the Mogul Emperors were devout Sunni Muslims. Thus it
is quite possible that the gemstone belonged either to one of the Shi'ite
Officers of the Emperor of Persian origin, or from one of the Shi'ite Deccan
Sultanates that were subjugated by Aurangzeb. It might also be possible that
the carvings actually originated in one of the Shi'ite Deccan Sultanates,
such as Golconda or Bijapur whose rulers were Shi'ite Muslims. Aurnagzeb
conquered Golconda and Bigapur in the years 1686-87.
Alan Caplan acquires the Mogul Emerald
There is no evidence to show that the Mogul Emerald ever entered the
treasury of the Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb, even though the gemstone originated
during this period. Several large chests in the treasury were full of these
precious green gemstones that originated in Colombia, that were plundered
almost three decades later by Nadir Shah, the mighty conqueror of Iran, in
the year 1739, when he invaded Delhi and Agra. Most of the emeralds in the
Aurnagzeb's collection eventually ended up in the treasury of the Iranian
Shahs of the Qajar dynasty, and were used in the settings of the crown
jewels of Iran, that included crowns, tiaras, jewel-studded swords and
shields, utility items, ornaments, special settings like the jewel-studded
globe, or just left as loose unmounted emeralds. Had the Mogul Emerald been
part of Aurangzeb's collection, it would undoubtedly have ended up in the
treasury of the Qajar Shahs of Iran.
Thus after the Mogul period, the gemstone most probably would have entered
the private collection of a connoisseur of gemstones in India, in whose
family it remained, until Alan Caplan, acquired the renowned gemstone during
one of his many trips to India and Burma. Alan Caplan who was born in 1913
in New York or New Jersey, claimed to be of Jewish origin. The young Alan
Caplan was interested in the natural sciences from early childhood, and
mineralogy became his special field of interest since his days in the high
school. He followed a course in Geology and Mineralogy at the University of
Colorado beginning in the year 1934 and graduated in 1937. He did an
additional one year from 1937-38, following an advanced course in Mineralogy
at the Colorado School of Mines. While at college, Alan Caplan began
collecting mineral specimens found in and around the Colorado area, and
began selling them, by running small ads in the magazines Rocks & Minerals
and The Mineralogist. After passing out of college in 1938 he decided to
take a trip to Brazil in search of minerals. This initial trip was highly
successful, and this was followed by at least 10 more trips, before the
onset of World War II. After these trips he supplied the Natural History
Museums of the Smithsonian, Harvard and New York AMNH with some fabulous
mineral specimens. After a short period of service in the army from 1943 to
1945 during World War II, when he served in Italy, he again returned to
Brazil and purchased more rare mineral specimens which he brought to his New
York office, from where they were disposed of. He made another dozen trips
to Brazil after the war, but by 1958, his interest shifted from minerals to
gemstones. This time he made regular trips to Colombia looking for emeralds,
and later he also made several trips to Burma to purchase rubies. It is
during one of these trips to Burma after 1958, he also happened to visit
India, where the Mogul Emerald was offered for sale, and he acquired the
renowned gemstone.
While the Mogul Emerald was in the possession of Alan Caplan, he was
gracious enough to have lent the gemstone for exhibitions in several
museums around the United States. Some of the Museums where the gemstone was
exhibited, with the dates of the exhibition, are as follows :-
1) Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, California - July 4 to
September 6, 1981.
2) American Museum of Natural History, New York - October 14, 1983 to
January 13, 1984.
3) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - September 14, 1985 to January 5,
1986.
4) National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution - July to
December 1995.
The sale of the Mogul Emerald at a Christie's
auction in New York
In 1988, one of Alan Caplan's rubies weighing 16-carats, which he acquired
from Mogok, Burma, sold for a record-breaking sum of $ 3.6 million,
achieving the highest ever price for a ruby sold at an auction. However the
Mogul Emerald remained with him until his death in 1998, and was sold by his
heirs only in the year 2001, when the stone was entrusted to Christie's of
New York for the sale. The gemstone fetched a record price of 2.2 million
dollars at this auction, and was sold to an anonymous buyer. It is reported
that the gemstone is now in the museum of Islamic Art of the independent
emirate of Qatar.
Other known inscribed emeralds
Several other inscribed emeralds of the Moghul period are known to exist in
different private collections. Two inscribed emeralds were known to have
existed in the collection of jewels of HRH Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah III, the
3rd Agha Khan, the spiritual leader of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Shi'ite
Muslims, who achieved greatness as an international statesman and diplomat,
and was appointed the President of the League of Nations in 1937. Sir Sultan
Muhammad Shah Agha Khan III died in 1957, at the age of 80 years, and was
succeeded by his grandson Prince Karim Agha Khan IV, the present spiritual
leader. In 1988 the two inscribed emeralds of the late Agha Khan III was
entrusted to Christie's for sale, and was sold on May 12, 1988. One of the
emeralds weighed 142.20 carats, while the other weighed 76.00 carats. Both
emeralds were inscribed with text from the Holy Qur'an.
Three other inscribed emeralds belong to the Al-Sabah Collection in Kuwait.
Two of these emeralds are inscribed with text from the Holy Qur'an, one of
which is a rectangular-cut stone of 85.60 carats and the other a
hexagonal-cut stone of 73.20 carats. A third emerald in this collection is a
59.60-carat cut and polished emerald, with only a short inscription, bearing
the name of Nadir Shah and dated 1153 A.H., which is equivalent to 1740 A.D.
This is just one year after the mighty Nadir Shah conquered Delhi and Agra,
and plundered their wealth. In all probability this emerald was one that was
brought to Iran during this expedition.
Related
Jewel Studded Ornaments in the Iranian Crown Jewels
Loose Precious and Semi Presious Stones in the Iranian Crown Jewels
Jewel
Studded Special Settings among the Iranian Crown Jewels
Utility Items among the Iranian Crown Jewels
Swords, Daggers and Sheilds of the Iranian Crown Jewels
Tiaras of the Iranian Crown Jewels
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References
1. Web page on the Moghul Emerald - Columbia. edu
2. Gems
& Gemology - The Quarterly Journal of GIA, 1981, Vol 17
3. Allan
Caplan, The Mineralogical Record, Biographical Archive.
4. Emerald,
Gem by Gem - International Colored Gemstone Association.
5. Beryl, Gem by Gem - International Colored Gemstone Association.
6.
GEO347K GEM NOTES - Beryl, Department of Geology, University of Texas,
Austin.
7. Beryl, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
8. Emerald,
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
9. Beryl, GO 340 Gemstones and
Gemology - Emporia State University.
10. The Cyclosilicate sub-class -
Galleries.com
11. Precious Stones - Emeralds - minelinks.com
