Origin of name
The 90.35-carat, natural, freshwater pearl, considered as the largest
documented baroque pearl in a snail-like formation, is believed to have
originated inside a freshwater mussel species in the Tennessee river, which
was invaded by a snail parasite. The reaction of the mussel was to
inactivate the parasitic snail and render it harmless, by laying down layer
after layer of nacre in the form of alternating layers of conchiolin and
aragonite around the snail, a natural response of the freshwater mussel for
its survival. It has been estimated that the freshwater mollusk lived for
50-70 years even after invasion by the parasite, and thus the snail-like
pearl formation would have grown inside the mussel for that period of time.
Thus the name "survival" given to this pearl, is undoubtedly the most
appropriate name that could have been given to a pearl of this caliber and
rarity, which clearly reflects its genesis inside the mussel, whose
"survival" was ensured by its formation.
©
Smithsonian Institution, photo by Chip Clark
Characteristics of the pearl
The "Survival Pearl" falls under the category of baroque pearls, having an
irregular shape, but yet has a recognizable shape in the form of a snail,
believed to have been formed naturally around a snail parasite that invaded
the mussel, which acted as the nucleus of the developing pearl. The pearl
has dimensions of 30.5 x 25.2 x 17.15 mm and a weight of 18.07 grams
equivalent to 90.35 carats or 361.40 grains. The color of the pearl is a
beautiful lavender-pink, a color most sought-after in pearls, and whose occurrence is
less than 5% of all natural freshwater pearls. The extraordinary combination
of size, unusual baroque shape, and rare lavender-pink color, makes the
"Survival Pearl" one of the rarest and most famous pearls in the world.
©
Smithsonian Institution, photo by Chip Clark
History of the pearl
North America, the natural home of the
world's richest and most diverse assemblage of freshwater mussel species
found anywhere on earth
Freshwater mussels have a worldwide distribution found in all continents
except Antarctica. They live on the bottoms of freshwater rivers, streams
and lakes, and around 1,000 species of freshwater mussels have been
identified worldwide. Of these nearly 300 species (30%) are indigenous to
North America alone, making this region the natural home of the world's
richest and most diverse assemblage of freshwater mussel species, found
anywhere on the earth. Out of the 300 North American freshwater mussel
species, 127 species (42%) are found in one large ecosystem in the
United States, the rivers and streams of the Ohio River Basin. This includes
rivers and streams in 13 States, Virginia, Tennessee, West Virginia,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, New York, North Carolina, Georgia,
Mississippi, Kentucky and Alabama. The Ohio River Basin is the world's
single largest ecosystem that supports the largest number of species of
freshwater mussels.
Mussels are found in unpolluted waters, either standing or flowing, that are
rich in oxygen, calcium and suspended food particles such as algae, bacteria
and other organic matter. They are commonly found in large river systems
like the Tennessee, Ohio, and Mississippi, but also occur in smaller rivers
and streams with suitable water quality, bottom substrate and food
particles. Most species of mussels tend to inhabit rivers and streams, where
the continuously flowing currents of water, supply abundant oxygen and food
particles, conducive to their growth and reproduction. However, certain
species of mussels have also adapted themselves to living in standing bodies
of water, such as ponds, lakes and reservoirs.
Use of freshwater mussel shells and pearls by
ancient Indians
Archaeological evidence in the form of enormous shell deposits abound at
sites along the Tennessee River, Illinois river, Mississippi River and other
bodies of water in the Eastern, Southern and Central United States, that point to the extensive
harvesting of freshwater mussels by native Indians in the past, some dating
back to several millennia. Freshwater mussels were primarily harvested by
the native Indians as a source of food, particularly during the winter
months when other sources of food was scarce. The discarded mussel shells
were carved and shaped into useful tools and utensils such as spoons,
scrapers and hoes. The colorful and iridescent mother-of-pearl, the interior
of the shells, was transformed into pieces of ornamental jewelry. Another
important use of the shells was in the pottery manufacture. Crushed shells
were mixed with the clay used in pottery, as tempering, to strengthen the
clay when fired. Certain native Indian tribes also used mussel shells as
currency for trading purposes. The occasional freshwater pearls found inside
the mussels were also used for ornamental purposes.
The discovery of the first freshwater pearl
in 1857, triggers a "pearl mania" in New Jersey
The first freshwater pearl discovered in the United States since the time of
the ancient Indians, was the 93-grain pink pearl discovered by a carpenter
named Jacob Quackenbush, in 1857, in the streams of Notch Brook, near
Paterson City, New Jersey, that came to be known as the Paterson Pearl,
which was purchased by Charles L. Tiffany of Tiffany & Co. New York City,
for $1,500, and subsequently sold in Paris to a French gem dealer for
$2,500, who in turn sold it to Empress Eugenie de Montijo, the Queen consort
of Emperor Napoleon III, and thus came to be known as the "Queen Pearl." The
discovery of the "Paterson Pearl" in 1857, triggered a "pearl mania" in
Paterson City, in which hundreds joined in the search, farmers, mechanics,
residents of neighboring villages and towns, and even students, who scoured
the shallow streams of Notch Brook, bringing out mussels that were pried
open eagerly with the expectation of finding a valuable pearl. It was
reported that in the year 1857, the New York City market, received about
$15,000 worth of pearls from the waters of Notch Brook. As the "pearl fever"
spread all freshwater bodies in the counties of New Jersey were searched,
and some high quality pearls were recovered from other brooks such as Rock
Road Brook, the Godwinville Brook, and Cherry Lane Brook. However, within a
short period of time, the freshwater mussel populations were almost
decimated, due to overexploitation.
Exploitation of freshwater mussel resources
to supply the button manufacturing industry
The "pearl mania" that originated in New Jersey spread to other neighboring
states, and bodies of freshwater such as lakes, rivers and streams were
searched for freshwater mussels that could possibly contain a pearl. Pearls
were discovered in New York, Ohio, Texas, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Mississippi,
Kentucky, Illinois, Tennessee and other states. However, the seemingly
endless supply of freshwater mussel shells, from the rivers and lakes of
southern, eastern and central United States, attracted the attention in
1887, of a German pearl-button maker named J. F. Boepple, who had
immigrated to the United States. He set up the first pearl-button
manufacturing factory in the United States, that made use of the freshwater
mussel shells. In the year 1912, around 200 button manufacturing plants had
been set up in the United States, that made use of the valves of fresh water
mussels as raw material. Most of the button factories were situated along
the banks of major rivers, and thousands of tons of mussels were gathered by
mussel hunters, loaded onto barges, and transported to these factories. The
mother-of-pearl button manufacturing industry, became a multimillion-dollar
industry, that thrived until World War II when plastic buttons displaced
shell buttons, that heralded the demise of the mother-of-pearl button
manufacturing industry in the United States. The badly depleted freshwater
mussel resources of the United States, were thus given a chance to recover.
Alternative use for the U. S. mussel shells
in the Japanese cultured pearl industry
In the early 1950s Japanese research scientists found that the United States
freshwater mussel shells were ideally suited for producing bead nucleus for
the Japanese cultured pearl industry. This finding led to the importation of
freshwater mussel shells from the United States to Japan, and the freshwater
mussel fishery that remained dormant since World War II, was once again
revived to supply the needs of the Japanese pearl culturists. In 1954, John
Latendresse founded the Tennessee Shell Company, together with a Japanese
partner. This company soon became the world's primary supplier of mussel
shells, for the cultured pearl industry. During the 1990s the value of U.S.
mussel shell exports to Japan stood at around $50 million annually.
Freshwater pearls were actually a byproduct of this mussel shell industry.
The "Survival Pearl" is part of the
collection of natural pearls belonging to John Latendresse
John Latendresse, "the father of American cultured freshwater pearls," used to
buy pearls in his young days, while traveling up and down the Mississippi,
from pearl harvesters and fisherman, and then selling them to brokers. This
was after World War II, during which he spent 38 months in the South
Pacific, as a U.S. marine. But, he found that the main activity taking place
along the Mississippi river at this time, was the buying and selling of
mussel shells to brokers, who exported them to Japan, where the shells were
used to create pearl nuclei, that formed the core of cultured pearls. The
buying and selling of mussel shells appeared to be more lucrative than the
buying and selling of freshwater pearls. Thus, in 1954, John Latendresse
founded the Tennessee Shell Company, together with a Japanese partner. This
company soon became the world's primary supplier of mussel shells for the
cultured pearl industry.
While engaging in the mussel shell business, whose by product was occasional
natural freshwater pearls, he also maintained his interest in purchasing
whatever natural freshwater pearls that came his way through pearl
harvesters and fisherman. He founded the American Pearl Company in 1961, in
Camden, Tennessee, which expanded to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1991. His
company specializes in both natural and cultured pearls from the United
States. In an interview given to the Aquaculture Magazine, September-October
1991 issue, he claimed that his collection of natural pearls is the largest
in the world, which was collected over a long period of almost 50 years,
from the rivers and lakes of America. The 90.35-carat, lavender-pink,
snail-like, baroque pearl is also part of this enormous collection.
For more information on John Latendresse's pioneering work on the culturing
of American freshwater pearls,
please click here.
Some of the most prolific species of
freshwater mussels
Freshwater shell and pearl mussels belong to the family Unionidae, under the
Phylum Mollusca and Class Bivalvia. Out of about 130 different species of
freshwater mussels found in the Ohio River basin, about 20 species are
commercially harvested. Some of the most prolific species among them include
the ebony shell (Fusconaia ebena), washboard (Megalonaias nervosa), heel splitter
(Potamilus alatus), pimple back (Quadrula pustulosa), elephant ear (Elliptio
crassidens), maple leaf (Quadrula quadrula),
three-ridge pig toe (Amblema plicata), pistol grip (Tritogonia verrucosa), and butterfly
(Ellipsaroa lineolata). Peak commercial fishing of
freshwater mussels takes place from April to September, and is carried out
mainly by independent divers operating in the rivers, streams and lakes of
Eastern, Southern and Central United States.
Freshwater mussel fisheries from the late
19th to the 20th centuries
The freshwater mussel fishery supported a large shell button industry from
1887 until World War II, when plastic buttons displaced the shell buttons.
The fishery then almost ceased, until the early 1950s, when the U.S.
freshwater mussel shells were found to be ideally suited as bead nucleus for
the Japanese pearl culture industry. This led to the revival of the mussel
fishery and during the 1990s U.S. mussel shell exports to Japan stood at $50
million annually. From 1887 to the 1990s while the freshwater mussel shells
supported the shell button industry, followed by the bead nucleus industry,
a main by product of these industries was the natural freshwater pearls
occasionally discovered from the mussels. Due to the pioneering work carried
out by John Latendresse from 1963 to 1983, a successful freshwater cultured
pearl industry has been set up in several states of the U.S. such as
Tennessee, Louisiana, Texas and California.
Structure of freshwater mussels
External structure and characteristics of
the shell
Freshwater mussels are also bivalve mollusks like saltwater oysters and
clams, and have a similar structure and appearance. The soft body of the
mussel is protected by the two shells that enclose it, and are connected by
a ligament. The shell provides some protection to the mussels from predators
such as muskrats, raccoons, fish and herons. Characteristics of the shell
such as size, shape, color and markings are used to differentiate between
various species of mussels. The color of the shells vary from yellow or
green to brown or black. The shell surfaces may also contain features such
as ridges, rays, bumps and other textures. Growth rings appearing on the
surface of the shell can be used to determine the age of the mollusk. It is
the number of growth rings that appeared on the shell of the mollusk that
harbored the "survival pearl" that gave an indication about its age, which
was about 50-70 years.
Colors of the nacre and variety of colors
and shapes of any pearls produced
The inner surface of the shell is lined by the pearly nacre, that varies in
color from pure white to shades of pink, salmon, gray and purple. The
occasional pearl that develops inside the mussels may thus assume any one of
these colors. White is the most common color, but the most desirable colors
are pinks, roses, lavenders and purples. Other colors in which
freshwater pearls may occur are cream, yellow, green, blue, brown, and red.
The shape of natural freshwater pearls are more often baroque, slugs or
wings. A perfectly round or near round pearl is an extreme rarity.
Internal structure, feeding, locomotion,
and growth
The soft body of freshwater mussels like other mollusks, consists of gills
for breathing, a digestive tract for digesting food, a large muscular foot
for locomotion, and a mantle tissue that secretes the shell.
Mussels are filter feeders that feed on microscopic particles such as algae,
bacteria and other organic particles, suspended in the water, that enters
through the incurrent siphon. As the water passes over the mucous-covered
gills, the tiny food particles are trapped, and transferred to the mouth.
Unpalatable items and waste matter are flushed out through an excurrent
siphon. Thus mussels have the ability to improve water quality of freshwater
lakes and streams, by filtering out suspended particles, including
impurities.
Mussels are found in flowing or standing waters rich in oxygen, calcium, and
suspended food particles. They lead a passive life, lying burrowed in the
sand and gravel substrates of streams and lakes, with only a small part of
their shells and siphons exposed. They remain sedentary and move only short
distances during their life time if necessary. They move slowly by extending
and contracting their large muscular foot. Disturbances caused by flooding,
drought, poor water quality and predators, may induce the muscles to move to
safer places. Their slow movement leaves footprints or tracks, that appear
as furrows on the soft mud and sand, along the margins of shallow streams or
lake bottoms.
With abundant supplies of oxygen, calcium and suspended food particles in
the water, young mussels grow rapidly, and their shell increases in length
and thickness. In older mussels growth slows down. As the mussel grows
annual growth rings are laid down on the shell, like growth rings on tree
trunks. The age of the mussel can be estimated by counting the growth rings
under a microscope. Mussels tend to live long, as long as humans, with an
average age of 60 years or more. Large species of mussels such as "washboard
mussel" can grow up to a length of 12 inches (30 cm), and weigh as much as 4
pounds ( 1.8 kg).
Reproduction and life cycle of freshwater
mussels
In freshwater mussels the sexes are separate. The mature male mussel
releases sperms into the surrounding water. The sperms enter the female
mussel with the incurrent siphon, and fertilize the eggs. The larvae develop
within the female, and may be retained inside the female from 1 to 10
months. The larvae known as glochidia are released from the female in spring
and early summer, between April and July. The glochidia drift in the water
seeking for a suitable fish host. If they find a suitable host their
survival is ensured, if not they die off. Freshwater mussels require a fish
host to complete their life cycle, unlike saltwater oysters and clams. Some
mussels may depend on a single fish species, whereas others can parasitize
many different species. The glochidia are dependent on the fish for their
nutrition during this short period of their life cycle. The glochidia attach
to the gills or fins of the host fish, and remain so for 1 to 4 weeks, while
they transform into juvenile mussels. The free-living juvenile mussels drop
off the fish, and begin their free-living life style, and later develop into
an adult mussels.
Ecological importance of freshwater mussels
Source of food for humans and valuable
wildlife
Fresh water mussels had been an important source of food for humans in
ancient times, particularly during the winter months when other sources of
food were very scarce. However, today mussel meat is not recommended for
human or animal consumption, because they accumulate and store toxic metals
and other water pollutants in their tissues. In unpolluted water bodies
where mussels do exist, they are an important link in the food chain, being
a source of food for valuable wildlife such as muskrats, otters and
raccoons. Besides this young mussels are eaten by ducks, herons and sport
fish.
Ability to improve water quality by
filtering
Mussel are filter feeders and have the ability to filter large quantities of
water. Large mussels can filter several gallons of water in a day. They
improve water quality by straining out suspended particles and pollutants.
Thus mussels are considered as natural water purifiers in rivers and lakes.
They are very effective in removing algae and suspended organic particles,
in organically enriched waters around waste water facilities and in fish
farm effluents.
Used as biological monitors of the
environment
Mussels are useful biological monitors of environmental conditions, and the
quality of water in rivers and lakes. A sudden death of freshwater mussels
in flowing or standing waters, is a reliable indicator of toxic
contamination. The drastic decrease of freshwater mussel populations in
rivers and lakes, is a clear indication of chronic water pollution.
Environmental scientists can determine the type and extent of water
pollution in rivers and lakes by analyzing mussel tissue to determine the
type and quantity of pollutants.
Possible bio-medical uses of freshwater
mussels
Research work is being carried out on the possible bio-medical uses of
freshwater mussels. Evidences seem to suggest that some mussels may be
resistant to certain types of cancer. Thus the extraction of cancer-curing
drugs from mollusks might be feasible in the future.
Reasons for the rapid decline in the numbers
and diversity of mussels in North America
There had been a rapid decline in the numbers and diversity of mussels in
the rivers, streams and lakes in the Eastern, Southern and Central United
States. Over harvesting by commercial shellers to meet the increase in
demand for U.S. freshwater mussel shells by the cultured pearl industry
overseas, had been given as a major contributory factor for this rapid
decline, coupled with the spread of mussel diseases. However, ecological
studies conducted to determine the major contributory factors for this rapid
decline have indicated, that, while over harvesting and disease might have
contributed marginally towards this alarming situation, other human
activities that had a direct bearing on the degradation of the mussel
habitat, and disruption of the life cycle of mussels were directly
responsible.
Human activities that lead to the
degradation of the mussel habitats
Some of the human activities that can lead to the degradation of mussel
habitats can be listed as follows :-
1) Construction of dams and impoundments
2) Dredging and channelization
3) Sedimentation
1) Most mussel species inhabit free-flowing streams and rivers, that
are usually rich in oxygen, calcium and suspended food particles. The
construction of dams and impoundments across streams and rivers, created
artificial lakes and reservoirs, with increased depths, reduced water
currents and temperatures, and modified algal and fish communities, all of
which were not conducive, to mussel populations living in free-flowing
waters rich in oxygen. Dam construction can also eliminate fish hosts that
are needed by the mussels to complete their life cycle.
2) Dredging of rivers and streams for gravel and sand or channeling to
straighten streams, lead to the direct destruction of mussel populations as
they are crushed or removed from the streams and rivers. Such activities
permanently destroys the stream-bottom habitat of the mussels.
3) Sedimentation caused by the erosion of top soil from agricultural lands,
construction projects, and areas where mining operations and logging had
been taking place, can lead to the destruction of mussel habitats in rivers
and lakes.
Factors that can destroy mussel
populations directly or disrupt their life cycle
Factors that can destroy mussel populations directly or disrupt their life
cycle can be listed as follows :-
1) Water pollution
2) Destruction of host fish
3) Introduction of non-native species from Europe and Asia
1) The contamination of rivers and lakes with toxic chemicals from
industrial effluents, and agricultural chemicals, can be detrimental
to adult and young mussels and their host fish. Such chemicals can kill
young mussels immediately, but adult mussels have the ability to close their
shells (clam up) for a short time to avoid poisonous chemicals that flow
downstream. However multiple spills can kill the entire population. Water
pollution not only kills mussels directly, but also can kill the fish hosts
on which the mussels depend to complete their life cycle.
2) Mussels depend on the presence of the right species of host fish to
complete their life cycle. The larvae known as Gloichidia that are released
by the female mussels, cannot survive, if they do not cling on to the gills
or fins of a suitable fish host, on which they are parasitic for about 1 to
4 weeks, while they transform into juvenile mussels. Thus the presence of
the right species of host fish is crucial for the successful completion of
the life cycle of mussels. Because of this close interdependence between
mussel and fish, any threat to the survival of the host fish can also
jeopardize the survival of the mussels. Dams that block the migration of
fish and water pollution are some factors that can threaten the survival of
host fish species, and therefore threaten the long term survival of mussel
populations.
3) The accidental introduction of two species of freshwater mussels from
Europe (Dreissena polymorpha) and Asia (Corbicula fluminea), into the waters
of the United States, have posed a serious threat to the continued survival
of the native freshwater mussels. The small shellfish species known as the
"Zebra mussel" (Dreissena polymorpha) introduced accidentally from Europe,
have spread rapidly throughout the United States. These mussels are not only
voracious feeders but also reproduce fast. Thus the native mussels have to
compete with these invaders for food and space. Besides this, the zebra
mussels also attach themselves to the shells of the native freshwater
mussels in large numbers, that they interfere with the nutrition and
respiration of the native mussels. Thus the continued survival of native
freshwater mussels is dependent on controlling the spread of zebra mussels,
and stopping the invasion of other exotic mussel species.
Related :-
1)
Queen Pearl - Paterson Pearl
2)
Black Beauty Pearl
3)
Pearl of Asia
4)
Hope Pearl
5)
Imperial Hong
Kong Pearl
6)
Pearl of Kuwait
7)
Drexel Pearl
External Links :-
1)
Sustaining America's Aquatic Biodiversity, Freshwater Mussel Biodiversity
and Conservation - Louis A. Helfrich, Richard J. Neves and Hilary Chapman -
Virginia Tech, publication number 420-523
2)
Pearls
- Unites States Geological Survey -www.usgs.gov
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References
1.GIA Events & Trade Shows - The Allure of Pearls
Exhibition at the Smithsonian's NMNH, Washington D.C.
2.Pearls
- USGS - www.usgs.gov
3.Sustaining America's Aquatic
Biodiversity, Freshwater Mussel Biodiversity and Conservation - Louis A.
Helfrich, Richard J. Neves and Hilary Chapman - Virginia Tech, publication
number 420-523
4.Mussel Bound in Minnesota - July-August 2000 - by Dan
Kelner, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.
5.Mussels of Illinois - Human Uses of Freshwater Mussels - Robert E. Warren
6.Tennessee
Freshwater Mussels - Treasures Past and Present, The University of
Tennessee, Frank H. McClung Museum
7.Mineral Sciences Exhibitions -
Department of Mineral Sciences, www.mnh.si.edu
